As 


THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

621.13 

R68hv 

1881 


; 


.'tv 


ROPER’S  HAND-BOOK 

OF 

THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PEESS. 

Scientific  American,  New  York. 

The  author  of  this  work  very  truly  believes  that  in  a book, 
as  in  a clock,  any  complication  of  its  machinery  has  a tendency 
to  impair  its  usefulness  and  affect  its  reliability.  Hence,  in  pre- 
paring a book  which  is  intended  to  be  a guide  for  the  practical 
locomotive  engineer,  he  avoids  “mathematical  problems  and 
entangling  formulse,’'  and  offers  a pocket  volume,  full  of  in- 
formation, theoretical  as  well  as  practical,  succinctly  and  clearly 
condensed.  There  are  chapters  on  heat,  combustion,  water,  air, 
gases  and  steam ; others  on  the  construction  of  the  locomotive 
and  of  its  various  parts,  entered  into  with  considerable  details; 
instructions  for  the  care  and  management  of  boilers  and  engines, 
tables  of  strength  of  materials,  and  useful  practical  hints  for 
the  guidance  of  the  engineer.  In  brief,  the  volume  is,  as  its 
name  indicates,  a hand-book  to  which  the  locomotive  mechanic 
can  turn  for  information  regarding  almost  every  branch  of  his 
trade.  It  is  neatly  illustrated  and  bound  in  morocco,  in  conve- 
nient pocket-book  form. 

North  American  and  United  States  Gazette,  Phila, 

Mr.  Roper  asserts  as  a preliminary  qualification  for  his  task, 
that  he  has  had  more  than  thirty  years^  experience  with  all 

240 


ROPER^S  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


classes  of  steam-engines  and  boilers.  The  object  of  the  work  is 
to  convey  practical  knowledge  of  all  that  appertains  to  the  loco- 
motive engine  and  boiler,  in  a practical  manner.  Stationary 
and  marine  engines  are  omitted,  because  other  treatises  furnish 
all  that  need  be  known  of  them.  Mr.  Roper  seems  to  know 
exactly  what  the  class  for  whom  he  writes  require,  and  what  they 
can  comprehend  and  employ.  His  opinion,  as  expressed  in  his 
work,  is  the  highest  compliment  ever  paid  to  those  in  question, 
and  to  the  railways  of  this  country,  by  which  this  skill  has  been 
created  and  is  sustained  and  promoted.  The  mechanical  and 
dynamical  equivalents  of  heat  and  its  molecular  force  are  treated 
in  a clear  and  lucid  manner.  Chemical  equivalents,  the  lique- 
faction and  dilatation  of  gases,  superheated  steam,  tractive  and 
evaporative  power,  combustion,  mensuration,  incrustation,  and 
similar  subjects  are  discussed.  The  strictly  mechanical  infor- 
mation is  fully  and  lucidly  set  forth,  to  an  extent  that  would 
gain  a degree  in  any  of  our  schools.  But  beyond  the  rudi- 
ments, and  beyond  their  combinations  and  applications,  there 
is  the  pervading  idea  that  the  American  engineer  aims  to  know 
the  effect  by  its  cause — seeks  philosophical  knowledge  as  a part 
of  his  employment,  and  not  only  seeks,  but,  as  a whole,  has  mas- 
tered so  much  that  he  deserves  a standard  in  pure  science  very 
few  have  supposed.  No  higher  compliment  could  be  paid,  and 
it  could  be  paid  nowhere  else.  The  treatise  apparently  omits 
nothing,  expresses  clearly  though  compactly,  furnishes  tables, 
and  is  a fine  tribute  to  the  practical  ability  of  the  country  It 
contains  suitable  illustrations,  and  is  appropriately  prefaced  with 
a portrait  of  M.  \V.  Baldwin. 


Boston  Journal,  Bostor. 

This  book  is  precisely  the  kind  of  manual  which  every  loco- 
motive engineer  needs  to  have.  Without  being  over-technical, 
it  conveys  a great  amount  of  information  concerning  every  part 
of  the  locomotive,  and  its  relation  to  the  rest;  and  concerning 
combustion,  heat,  steam,  friction,  dead-weight,  etc.  It  is  a very 
21  * 241 


eopee’s  hand-book  of  the  locomotive. 


complete  and  intelligent  book,  is  neatly  printed  and  fully  illus- 
trated, and  is  bound  in  morocco,  with  a tuckj  in  convenient  size 
for  the  pocket.  ^ 

Evening  Bulletin,  Phila.,  April  30,1874, 

It  is  a new  example  of  the  vast  new  literature  that  has  ]been 
required  by  the  work  of  modern  inventors  and  discoverers.  In 
a compact  volume  of  over  300  pages,  bound  in  pocket-form,  are 
crowded  a mass  of  facts,  suggestions,  statistics,  figures,  formulas, 
tables,  diagrams  and  illustrations,  the  study  of  which  would 
almost  qualify  a novice  to  build  as  well  as  run  a locomotive 
engine.  Mr.  Hoper  has  already  made  himself  known  as  the 
author  of  an  excellent  Catechism  of  High-Pressure  or  Non- 
Condensing  Steam- Engines P His  present  volume  is  appropri- 
ately adorned  with  a portrait  of  the  great  American  engine' 
builder,  the  late  M.  W.  Baldwin. 

Newark  Manufacturer,  Newark,  N.  J. 

An  experience  of  over  thirty  years  with  all  classes  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Boilers  enables  the  author  to  be  fully  posted 
whereof  he  writes.  We  opine  that  the  various  Bailroad  Man- 
agers would  find  it  a profitable  investment  for  themselves,  as 
well  as  the  means  of  securing  a greater  degree  of  safety  to  the 
travelling  public,  were  they  to  present  a copy  of  this  valuable 
Hand-hook  to  each  one  of  their  engineers.  It  is  of  convenient 
size  for  the  side-pocket,  with  gilt  edges  and  tuck  cover. 

Locomotive  Engineers’  Monthly  Journal,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 

We  have  upon  our  table  a “Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive,” 
just  published  by  Stephen  Roper,  author  of  “ Roper’s  Catechism 
of  High-Pressure  Engines.”  It  is  a neat, compact  book,  of  about 
300  pages,  of  a size  that  is  easily  carried  in  the  pocket,  and  is 
so  full  of  sound  sense,  without  any  attempt  at  high-sounding 
phrases,  that  we  do  not  hesitate  to  endorse  and  recommend 
242 


roper’s  hand-book  of  the  locomotive. 


it  to  those  who  desire  to  obtain  all  of  the  knowledge  possible  of 
the  mighty  machine  under  their  charge.  We  notice,  too,  that 
its  explanations  are  not  made  in  algebraical  or  geometrical 
terms,  but  in  language  that  can  be  comprehended  by  one  and 
all,  which  makes  it  in  reality  just  what  is  claimed  for  it,  a simple 
and  reliable  hand-book,  which  the  engineer,  fireman,  or  ma- 
chinist can  at  any  time  refer  to  with  confidence  and  understand- 
ing upon  all  subjects  directly  connected  with  the  Locomotive. 


The  Locomotive,  Hartford,  Conn, 

This  volume  will  meet  a want  long  felt  among  practical  en- 
gineers, and  will,  we  believe,  have  a ready  and  large  sale.  It 
treats  the  Locomotive  practically,  and  the  descriptions  of  its 
working  parts  are  clear  and  clearly  understood.  We  commend 
it,  and  its  companion-book  the  Catechism  of  Steam  Engines,  to 
engineers.  They  will  find  them  both  valuable  books. 


Public  Ledger,  Phiiadeiphia. 

The  Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive,”  including  the  construc- 
tion, running  and  management  of  Locomotive  Engines  and  Boil- 
ers, by  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer,  has  just  been  published.  This 
valuable  work  contains  a large  amount  of  practical  and  useful 
information  for  locomotive  engineers,  briefly  but  clearly  given 
and  admirably  arranged. 


National  Car  Builder,  New  York. 

Roper’s  Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive.  — This  little 
volume  contains,  in  convenient  pocket-book  form,  a great  amoant 
of  valuable  information  for  the  guidance  of  the  practical  loco- 
motive engineer.  It  is  not  encumbered  with  formulas  or  mathe- 
matical problems,  but  embodies  in  simple  language  and  compact 
arrangement  a description  of  the  various  parts  and  functions 
of  the  locomotive-engine,  with  instructions  for  its  cai^e  and 
management. 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


A name  as  familiar  as  household  words  wherever,  on  the  American 
Continent,  the  Locomotive  has  penetrated. 


HAND-BOOK 


OF  THE 

LOCOMOTIVE, 

INCLUDING  THE 

Construction,  Running,  and  Management 

OF 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 


BY 

STEPHEN  EOPER,  Engineer, 

Author  of  “ Eoper’s  Catechism  of  High-Pressure  or  Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines,”  “Roper’s  Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  En- 
gines,” “ Roper’s  Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines,” 
“Roper’s  Handy-Book  for  Engineers,”  “Roper’s  Im- 
provements in  Steam-Engines,”  “Roper’s  Use 
and  Abuse  of  the  Steam-Boiler,”  etc. 

NINTH  EDITION,  REVISED. 
PHILADELPHIA: 

E.  claxton  & company, 

930  Market  Street. 

1881. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 
STEPHEN  ROPEK, 

in  the  Office  ox  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


J.  FAGAN  A SON, 
STEREOTYPERS,  PHILAD’A 



« 


i . 

H.  W.  HOOK,  Esq., 

THIS  VOLUME 

X ^ 

||s  ^£Spect)jullg  |[nscrtbti 

JN 

X 


9647  4 


INTRODUCTION. 


book  was  not  written  because  the  writer 

- believed  there  was  any  scarcity  of  books  on  the 
locomotive  in  the  market,  but  because  he  was  aware 
that  most  of  the  works  on  that  subject  were  written 
by  authors  who  did  not  fully  comprehend  the  wants 
of  those  for  whom  they  were  intended ; for  what  use 
are  long  mathematical  problems  or  entangling  for- 
mulas to  those  who  do  not  fully  understand  them  ? 
Comparatively  few  engineers  are  good  mathemati- 
cians ; and  perhaps  it  is  just  as  well  that  they  are 
not,  because  it  is  well  known  that  nature  rarely  com- 
bines high  mathematical  talent  with  tact,  practical 
observation,  and  energy — qualifications  so  essential  to 
the  successful  engineer. 

It  has  been  heretofore  a common  custom  with  men 
who  wrote  books  on  the  locomotive  to  embody  in 
them  lengthy  descriptions  of  stationary  and  marine 
engines;  but  the  writer  of  this  work  has  avoided 
everything  not  directly  connected  with  the  locomo- 
tive engine,  because  he  believes  that  a book,  in  a 
certain  sense,  is  like  a clock  — any  complication  of 
its  machinery  has  a tendency  to  impair  its  usefulness 
and  effect  its  reliability.  If  men  having  charge  of 
locomotive  engines  desire  to  inform  themselves  on 

vii 


viii 


INTRODUCTION. 


other  branches  of  engineering,  they  can  do  so  at  a 
very  small  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

The  writer  has  had  an  experience  of  over  thirty 
years  with  all  classes  of  steam-engines  and  boilers, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  this  little  book  his  aim 
has  been  to  convey  his  meaning  by  means  of  plain 
language,  with  familiar  and  practical  illustrations 
for  the  instruction  of  those  who  are  intrusted  with 
the  care  and  management  of  locomotive  engines  and 
boilers.  The  range  of  subjects  comprehends  every- 
thing directly  connected  with  the  locomotive  engine 
and  boiler.  To  most  of  the  articles,  t^^bles  have  been 
appended  and  examples  introduced  to  make  the  sub- 
jects treated  upon  more  forcible  and  distinct. 

In  that  part  of  the  work  devoted  to  the  “ Theory 
of  the  Locomotive,”  the  writer  has  endeavored  to 
call  the  attention  of  the  young  engineer  to  the  study 
of  the  constituent  elements  of  water,  air,  heat,  com- 
bustion, steam,  etc.,  so  that  in  after  years  he  may  be 
able  to  determine  with  accuracy  whether  he  is  de- 
riving the  greatest  amount  of  practical  advantage 
from  the  several  quantities  of  impulsive  power  those 
elements  may  be  capable  of  supplying. 

The  author  cheerfully  admits  that  the  work  pos- 
sesses no  literary  merit,  and  he  disclaims  any  attempt 
at  fine  writing,  but  he  hopes  that  the  work  will  be 
found  to  possess  at  least  the  merit  of  being  plain  and 
correct ; and,  in  short,  he  trusts  that  it  will  be  found 
what  he  has  endeavored  to  make  it  — a practical 
“ Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive.” 


CONTENTS 


For  a full  reference  to  the  Contents  in  detail,  see  Index, 
page  319, 


PAGE 

Introduction 7 

The  Locomotive 17 

Locomotive  Engineers 21 

Theory  of  the  Locomotive  . . . .24 

Water 25 

Table  showing  the  Weight  of  Water  . . .31 

Table  showing  the  Weight  of  Water  at  Different 

Temperatures . 32 

Table  showing  the  Boiling-point  of  Fresh  Water 
at  different  Altitudes  above  Sea-level  . .33 

Air 33 

Table  showing  the  Expansion  of  Air  by  Heat, 
and  the  Increase  of  Bulk  in  proportion  to  In- 
crease of  Temperature 37 

Eesistance  of  Air  against  Railroad  Trains  . . 38 

Table  showing  the  Resistance  of  Air  against  Rail- 
road Trains 40 

Comparative  Scale  of  English,  French,  and 
German  Thermometers  . . . .42 

The  Thermometer 43 

Rules  for  comparing  Degrees  of  Temperature  in- 
dicated by  different  Thermometers  . • .47 

ix 


X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Elastic  Fluids  and  Vapors  . . . .49 


Caloric 

Heat 


51 

52 


Latent  Heat  of  various  Substances  . . .61 

Table  showing  the  Effects  of  Heat  upon  different 


Bodies 

COMBUS’iION 


61 

63 


Compositions  of  different  kinds  of  Anthracite  Coal  66 
Table  showing  the  Total  Heat  of  Combustion  of 

various  Fuels 74 

Table  of  Temperatures  required  for  the  Ignition 
of  different  Combustible  Substances  . . .75 

Gases  . .76 

Steam 80 

Table  showing  the  Velocity  with  which  Steam  of 
different  Pressures  will  flow  into  the  Atmos- 
phere or  into  Steam  of  lower  Pressure  . . 89 

Eule  for  finding  the  Superficial  Feet  of  Steam-pipe 
required  to  Heat  any  Building  with  Steam  . 89 
Table  showing  the  Temperature  of  Steam  at  dif- 
ferent Pressures  from  1 pound  per  Square  Inch 
to  240  pounds,  and  the  Quantity  of  Steam  pro- 
duced from  a Cubic  Inch  of  Water,  according 

to  Pressure 91 

Horse-power  of  Steam-engines  . . . .94 

Eule  for  finding  the  Horse-power  of  Stationary 

Engines 99 

The  Power  of  the  Locomotive  ....  101 

Eule  for  finding  the  Horse-power  of  a Locomotive  102 
Eules  for  calculating  the  Tractive  Power  of  Loco- 
motives   102 

Table  of  Gradients 105 


CONTENTS. 


xi 


Adhesive  Power  of  Locomotives  .... 
Rule  for  finding  the  Power  of  a Locomotive  . 
Proportions  of  Locomotives,  according  to  best 

Modern  Practice 

Proportions  of  different  parts  of  Locomotives,  ac- 
cording to  best  Modern  Practice 
Table  showing  the  Travel  of  Valve  and  the  Amount 
of  Lap  and  Lead  for  different  Points  of  Cut-off, 
and  the  Distance  the  Steam  follows  the  Piston 
on  the  Forward  Motion 

Rules 

Locomotive  Building  . 

Construction  of  Locomotives  . 

Setting  the  Valves  of  Locomotives 
Dead  Weight  of  Locomotives  . 

Table  showing  the  number  of  Revolutions  per 
minute  made  by  Drivers  of  Locomotives  of  dif- 
ferent Diameters  and  at  different  Speeds  . 
Steam-ports  .... 

Bridges 

Eccentrics  '.  . . . 

Eccentric  Rods 
Formula  by  which  to  find  the  Positions  of  the  Ec- 
centric on  the  Shaft  . 

The  Slide-valve  . 

Friction  on  the  Slide-valve 
Lap  and  Lead  of  Valve 
Balanced  Slide-valve  . 

Table  showing  the  amount  of  Lap  and  Lead  on 
the  Valves  of  Locomotives  in  Practice,  on  35  of 
the  principal  Railroads  in  this  Country  . ^ 

The  Link 


106 

106 

107 

113 


116 

117 

118 
118 
121 
126 


129 

132 

133 

134 

136 

137 
139 

143 

144 

145 


146 

147 


xii 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Adjustment  of  the  Link 152 

Steam  and  Spring  Cylinder  Packing  for  Lo- 
comotives  154 

Packing  for  the  Pistons  and  Valve-Eods  of 

Locomotives 156 

Eule  for  finding  the  size  of  Piston-  and  Valve- 

Eod  Packing 158 

Brasses  for  Driving-axles  of  Locomotives  . 159 

Lateral  Motion 160 

Speed  Indicators 161 

Locomotive  Boilers 163 

Proportions  of  the  Locomotive  Boiler,  from 
THE  BEST  Modern  Practice  ....  167 
Wagon-top  and  Straight  Boilers  . . . 167 

The  Evaporative  Power  of  Locomotive 

Boilers 170 

Heating  Surface,  Steam  Eoom,  and  Water 
Space  in  Locomotive  Boilers  . . .172 

Heating  Surface  to  Grate  Surface  in  Steam 

Boilers 174 

Eule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  Locomo- 
tive boilers 174 

Eule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  the  Tubes 

of  Locomotive  Boilers 175 

Eule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  Station- 
ary Boilers 175 

Punched  and  Drilled  Holes  for  the  Seams 
OF  Locomotive  Boilers  . . . .176 

Machine  and  Hand  Eiveting  for  Locomotive 

Boilers 179 

Comparative  Strength  of  Single  and  Double 
Eiveted  Boiler  Seams 180 


CONTENTS. 

liule  for  finding  safe  Working  Pressure  of  any 

Boiler 

Eule  for  finding  the  safe  Working  Pressure  of 

Steel  Boilers 

Eule  for  finding  the  safe  External  Pressure  on 

Boiler  Flues 

Definitions  as  applied  to  Boilers  and  Boiler 

Materials 

Explanation  of  Table  of  Boiler  Pressures  . 
• Eule  for  finding  the  Aggregate  Strain  caused  by 
the  Pressure  of  Steam  on  the  Shells  of  Loco- 
motive Boilers 

Table  of  safe  Internal  Pressures  for  Steel  Boilers 
Furnaces  of  Locomotive  Boilers 
Proportions  of  Fire-boxes,  from  the  best 

Modern  Practice 

Strength  of  Stayed  Surfaces  in  the  Furnaces 

OF  Locomotive  Boilers 

Stay-bolts 

Crown-bars 

Tubes 

Table  of  Superficial  Areas  of  External  Surfaces 
of  Tubes  of  Various  Lengths  and  Diameters  in 

Square  Feet 

Combustion  of  Fuel  in  Locomotive  Furnaces 

Smoke-box 

Smoke-stacks 

Exhaust-nozzle 

Safety-valves 

Table  showing  the  Eise  of  the  Safety-valves 
Steam-gauges . . 

2 


xiii 

PAGE 

183 

184 

185 

186 
187 


187 

188 
192 

198 

199 
201 
203 
203 


206 

210 

213 

214 
216 
217 
220 
221 


xiv 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

Instructions  for  the  Care  and  Management 

OF  Locomotive  Boilers  . 

. 222 

Firemen  on  Locomotives  . 

. 224 

Firing 

. 228 

The  Injector 

. 231 

Rue’s  “Little  Giant”  Injector. 

. 233-236 

Table  of  Capacities  of  Injectors  • 

. 237 

Signals 

. 238 

Wrecking  Tools  .... 

. 239 

Useful  Numbers  in  Calculating  Weights, 

Measures,  etc 241 

Mensuration  of  the  Circle,  Cylinder,  etc.  . 242 
Table  of  Decimal  Equivalents  to  the  Fractional 
Parts  of  a Gallon  or  an  Inch  ....  245 
Table  containing  the  Diameters,  Circumferences, 
and  Areas  of  Circles,  and  the  Contents  of  each 
in  Gallons  at  one  foot  in  Depth  . . . 246 

Table  showing  the  Weight  of  Water  in  Pipe  of 
various  Diameters  one  foot  in  Length  . . 249 

Rules 250 

Rules  for  finding  the  Elasticity  of  Steel 

Springs . .252 

Table  deducted  from  Experiments  on  Iron  Plates 
for  Steam-Boilers,  by  the  Franklin  Institute, 

Philada 255 

Table  showing  the  Result  of  Experiments  made 
on  different  Brands  of  Boiler  Iron  at  the  Stevens’ 
Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.  . . 255 

Table  showing  the  Actual  Extension  of  Wrought- 
Iron  at  various  Temperatures  ....  256 
Table  showing  the  Tensile  Strength  of  various 
Qualities  of  Cast-iron 257 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


PAQl 

Table  showing  the  Tensile  Strength  of  various 
Qualities  of  Wrought-Iron  ....  258 
Table  showing  the  Tensile  Strength  of  Various 
Qualities  of  Steel  Plates  . . . . . 259 

Central  and  Mechanical  Forces  and  Defini- 
tions. . 260 

Table  containing  Diameters,  Circumferences,  and 

Areas^of  Circles,  etc 267 

Incrustation  in  Steam-Boilers  ....  272 

Boiler  Explosions 278 

Accidents 285 

Table  showing  the  Time  at  80  different 

Places 289 

Distance  by  Kailroad  between  Important 
Places  in  the  United  States  . . . 292 

Distances  from  Philadelphia  to  Cities  and 
Towns  in  the  United  States  by  the  Short- 
est Routes 295 

Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms  as  applied 
TO  THE  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  LOCOMCTIVES  . 299 

Index 317 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


19 


layas  to  Madras,  across  the  desert  and  up  the  Nile 
to  the  borders  of  Nubia. 

Nations  which,  a few  years  ago,  were  far  away  from 
each  other,  are  now  comparatively  near  neighbors. 
The  barriers  of  superstition  and  caste  have  been  bro- 
ken down,  the  prejudice  and  manners  of  years  rev- 
olutionized, mountains  scaled,  uninhabitable  plains 
spanned,  and  vast  territories  opened  up  for  human 
habitations  which,  without  the  locomotive  and  the 
railroad,  must  have  been  forever  closed  against  civ- 
ilization. Suppose  there  had  been  no  such  facilities 
fpr  intercourse,  how  much. of  thought,  knowledge, 
and  opinion  of  civilization  would  we  have  in  com- 
mon with  other  nations,  or  even  the  remote  sections 
of  our  own  country  ? The  whole  history  of  scientific 
achievements  presents  nothing  more  wonderful  than 
the  results  produced  by  these  two  mighty  agents  of 
civilization. 

The  progress  of  the  locomotive  and  the  railroad  is 
indeed  one  of  the  marvels  of  history. 

Forty  years  ago,  the  locomotive  and  the  railroad 
were  almost  unknown.  Before  that  time,  travellers 
toiled  over  mountains  and  valleys  in  slow,  creeping 
coaches,  making  less  than  one  hundred  miles  a day ; 
but  now  they  fly  across  the  continent,  a distance  of 
3,500  miles,  in  less  than  a week. 


THE  ENGINEER’S  CHART. 


20 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE 


THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  history  of  this  most  remarkable  machine, 
now  so  necessary  to  the  daily  wants  and  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  civilized  world,  had  its  use- 
ful commencement  about  forty  years  ago,  and  yet 
much  that  is  exceedingly  interesting  in  tne  detail  of 
its  early  introduction  and  improvemeni  is  unknown 
to  the  present  generation. 

That  the  locomotive  and  the  railway  would  super- 
sede the  steamboat  for  passenger  travel,  and  the  canal 
and  turnpike  road  for  heavy  transportation,  was  not 
to  be  thought  of  in  the  early  days  of  the  new  power. 
It  was  true  the  river,  the  canal,  and  the  turnpike  roaa 
had  done  good  service  in  the  past,  but  they  did  not 
keep  pace  with  the  growing  wants  of  the  country. 

The  river,  nature’s  own  free  highway,  is,  when 
navigable,  often  hindered  by  flood,  frost,  and  by 
drought,  nor  did  it  run  everywhere,  or  always  where 
it  would  best  conduce  to  man’s  use  and  benefit.  The 
slow,  plodding  canal  did  its  work  cheaply,  and,  with 
2*  B 17 


18 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


nothing  better,  it  must  have  continued  the  favorite 
means  for  inland  trade.  But  canals  are  only  possible 
where  water  can  be  had  in  abundance  to  keep  them 
full ; and  with  winter’s  cold  to  interrupt  their  move- 
ments, they  are  practically  useless  for  half  the  year. 
Their  capacity,  at  best,  is  limited  in  many  ways. 

The  turnpike  road,  very  good  in  its  place,  had  a 
very  narrow  limit  of  usefulness,  when  the  means  to 
do  the  carrying  trade  of  ^continent  were  to  be  at- 
tained. Man’s  restless  nature  longed  for  and  de- 
manded something  better  than  the  river,  the  canal, 
or  the  turnpike  road ; and  this  has  been  found  in 
the  railroad  and  the  locomotive. 

The  railroad  and  the  locomotive  have  already 
united  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  shores,  climbing 
the  Sierras  and  winding  their  tortuous  course  down 
their  slopes,  dropping,  as  though  it  were,  villages, 
towns,  and  cities  in  their  path.  What  is  true  of  this 
country,  as  regards  the  railroad  and  locomotive,  is 
also  true  of  other  lands,  for  to-day  the  locomotive 
is  thundering  under  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  across 
the  plains  of  Russia,  eastward  to  Siberia,  down  the 
Danube,  from  central  Europe  to  Constantinople,  and 
from  Smyrna  to  Ephesus,  rushing  onward  to  the 
Euphrates ; and  before  long  the  scream  of  the  loco- 
motive will  be  heard  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  join- 
ing the  network  of  European  railways  with  the  web 
already  spun  in  India  — reaching  from  the  Indus  to 
Calcutta,  from  Bombay  to  Burmah,  from  the  Hima- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


21 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS, 

The  duties  of  locomotive  engineers  are  of  a very 
important  character,  as  they  are  not  only  intrusted 
with  the  property  of  their  employers,  but,  to  a certain 
extent,  the  lives  of  every  passenger  on  their  trains, 
and  even  the  passers-by ; and  when  we  consider  the 
immense  number  of  people  that  are  transported  every 
day,  and  the  small  number  of  accidents  which  befall 
travellers,  it  will  be  seen  how  worthy  they  are  of  the 
trust  reposed  in  them.  One  may  point  to  the  nu- 
merous railway  accidents  that  cause  such  great 
slaughter.  But  on  examination,  how  very  few  of  all 
these  terrible  casualties  are  from  the  fault  of  the 
engineer.  They  are  not  to  blame  for  broken  rails, 
misplaced  switches,  or  rotten  bridges  which  send  the 
cars  and  their  occupants  whirling  down  embank- 
ments; they  are  not  to  blame  for  the  trains  that 
come  rushing  like  the  wind  into  them,  while  they 
have  the  right  of  way. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  read  instances  of  hero- 
ism in  which  engineers  have  stood  to  their  posts  in 
face  of  death;  and  many  have  been  crushed  under 
their  own  machines  who  might  have  saved  their  lives 
if  they  had  not  bravely  adhered  to  their  places,  and 
did  their  duty  to  the  last.  Thousands  of  cases  might 
be  cited  to  show  the  bravery  and  heroism  v/ith  which 
engineers  have  acted  while  standing,  as  it  were,  on 
the  brink  of  eternity,  which,  if  seen  on  the  battle- 


22 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


field,  or  on  the  quarter-deck  of  a steamer,  would 
have  called  forth  universal  applause. 

No  soldier  in  the  battlers  shock  needs  more  to  cast  out  fear, 
And  hold  his  soul  firm  as  a rock,  than  does  an  engineer ; 
And  he  who  might  from  the  battle  flee,  or  yield  his  soul  to  fear, 
Might  still  perhaps  a warrior  be,  but  never  an  engineer  ” 

The  heroism  that  deliberately  accepts  positions  of 
danger  when  its  appreciation  by  others  is  not  mani- 
fested, can  hardly  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition 
of  its  accompanying  excitement ; the  incentive  seems 
to  be  disproportioned  to  the  responsibilities.  In  cases 
where  the  performer  knows  that  the  community  looks 
on  approvingly  and  wonderingly,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  fireman  who  risks  his  own  life  to  save  that  of 
another,  or  the  soldier  who  exposes  himself  to  hostile 
bullets,  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  impelling  motive. 
But  in  such  a case  as  that  of  the  locomotive  engineer, 
whose  importance  is  scarcely  recognized,  and  whose 
labors  and  risks  are  seldom  fully  appreciated,  it 
would  seem  that  a noble  sense  of  duty  and  a heroic 
sentiment  of  self-denial  must  be  the  impelling  cause 
for  following  so  dangerous  a profession. 

It  is  almost  an  every-day  occurrence  for  passengers 
on  steamships,  after  arriving  safely  in  port,  to  assemble 
and  pass  complimentary  resolutions  to  the  fidelity 
and  watchfulness  of  the  captain,  although  the  dis- 
charge of  the  duties  that  devolve  on  him  did  not 
involve  the  exercise  of  either  bravery  or  heroism. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


23 


But  who  ever  read  of  the  passengers  on  a railway 
train  assembling  in  a depot,  and  passing  complimen- 
tary resolutions  to  the  engineer  that  carried  them 
safely  to  their  homes,  or  to  the  end  of  their  journey  ? 
Nor  does  he  seem  to  have  any  considerate  human 
sympathy  as  he  stands  on  his  foot-board  and  guides 
the  ponderous  engine  through  rocky  defiles,  over 
trestle-work,  culvert,  and  bridge,  around  the  edge 
of  a mountain  spur,  through  the  streets  of  a town, 
frequently  in  darkness. 

Like  a soldier  begrimed  in  battle’s  dark  strife, 

And  brave  to  the  cannon’s  hot  breath. 

He  too  plunges  on,  with  his  long  train  of  life, 
Unmindful  of  danger  and  death. 

Although  the  love  of  excitement,  or  the  gratifica- 
tion of  daring  danger,  may  influence  some  who  seek 
the  position  of  a locomotive  engineer,  yet  it  is  not  so 
with  all  the  responsibilities  assumed.  The  dangers 
and  exposures  to  be  encountered  deserve  a more 
generous  recognition  than  they  generally  receive. 
But  when  the  time  shall  come  that  labor  will  occupy 
its  proper  position,  and  the  mechanic  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  useful  professions,  the  locomotive  engineer  will 
fill  no  second-rate  niche.  He  stands  even  to-day 
above  his  brother  mechanics,  inasmuch  as  qualities 
of  mind  not  requisite  in  the  shop  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  success  in  his  vocation. 


24 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


AIR. 


HEAT. 


THEORY  or  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


WATER. 


THERMOMETERS.  ELASTIC  FLUIDS. 


CALORIC. 


COMBUSTION.  GASES. 


STEAM. 


WATER. 

Pure  water  in  nature  does  not  exist,  nor  is  it  to 
be  found  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist.  For- 
tunately, however,  it  happens  that  pure  water  is  not 
necessary,  or  even  desirable,  for  household  or  manu- 
facturing purposes.  The  presence  of  air  or  other 
gases  adds  greatly  to  the  ease  with  which  steam 
may  be  generated;  the  ammonia  that  is  present 
in  most  water  improves  it  for  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, and  it  has  been  abundantly  proved  that  the 
salts  which  are  present  in  most  well-waters  add 
greatly  to  their  wholesomeness. 

But  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that 
some  waters  contain  impurities  which  render  them 
unfit  for  use.  Of  these  various  impurities  the  in- 
soluble portion  is  in  general  the  least  injurious, 
though  it  is  frequently  the  most  offensive. 

Water  swarming  with  minute  animalcules,  or  tur- 
bid with  the  clay  and  sand  that  has  been  stirred  up 
from  the  bed  of  some  stream,  may  be  offensive 
though  it  is  not  dangerous ; while,  on  the  other  hand, 
water  may  be  beautifully  clear  to  the  eye  and  not 
very  offensive  to  the  taste,  and  yet  hold  in  solution 
the  most  deadly  poison,  in  the  form  of  dissolved 
salts  or  the  soluble  portions  of  animal  excreta. 

3 25 


26 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


It  also  happens  that  these  insoluble  matters  are 
easily  and  cheaply  removed,  while  the  utmost  care 
is  required  to  free  water  from  matter  which  exists  in 
a dissolved  state. 

The  Composition  of  Water.  — Pure  water  is  com- 
posed of  the  two  gases,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the 
proportions  of  2 measures  of  hydrogen  to  1 of  oxygen, 
or,  1 weight  of  hydrogen  to  8 of  oxygen ; or,  oxygen 
89  parts  by  weight,  and  by  measure  I part,  hydro- 
gen, by  weight,  11  parts,  and  by  measure  2 parts. 

The  specific  gravity  of  all  waters  is  not  the  same. 
The  following  table  will  show  the  specific  gravity  of 
different  seas. 


Weight 
of  water 
being  1000 

AVeight  of 
an  impe- 
rial gallon 
in  pounds. 

Water  from  the  Dead  Sea 

1240 

12.4 

Mediterranean 

1029 

10.3 

Irish  Channel 

]028 

10.2 

Baltic  Sea 

1015 

10.2 

For  the  production  of  steam  all  waters  are  not 
equal.  Water  holding  salt  in  solution,  earth,  sand 
or  mud  in  suspension,  requires  a higher  temperature 
to  produce  steam  of  the  same  elastic  force  than  that 
generated  from  pure  water. 

Water,  like  all  other  fluids  and  gases,  expands  with 
heat  and  contracts  with  cold  down  to  39°  Fah. 

If  water  be  boiled  in  an  open  vessel  it  is  impossible 
to  raise  the  temperature  above  212°  Fah.,  as  all  the 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


27 


surplus  heat  which  may  be  applied  passes  off  with 
the  steam. 

If  heat  be  applied  to  the  top  of  a vessel,  ebullition 
will  not  tak^  place,  as  very  little  heat  would  be  com- 
municated to  other  parts  of  the  vessel,  and  the  water 
would  not  boil. 

Ebullition,  op  boiling  of  water  or  other  liquids,  is 
effected  by  the  communication  of  heat  through  the 
separation  of  their  particles. 

The  evaporation  of  water  is  the  conversion  of 
water  as  a liquid  into  steam  as  a vapor. 

Latent  Heat  of  Fusion. — If  a pound  of  ice  at 
32°  Fah.  be  mixed  with  a pound  of  water  at  174°, 
the  water  will  gradually  dissolve  the  ice,  being  just 
sufficient  for  that  purpose,  and  the  residuum  will  be 
two  pounds  of  water  at  32°  Fah. 

The  142°  units  of  heat  which  are  apparently  lost 
having  been  employed  in  performing  a certain 
amount  of  work,  i.  e.,*  in  melting  the  ice  or  separat- 
ing the  molecules  and  giving  them  another  shape, 
and  as  all  work  requires  a supply  of  heat  to  do  it, 
these  142°  units  have  been  consumed  in  performing 
the  work  necessary  to  melt  the  ice. 

Therefore,  if  the  pound  of  water  were  reconverted 
into  ice,  it  would  have  to  be  deprived  of  142°  of 
heat.  Hence  we  see  why  the  lost  heat  is  called  latent 
heat,  that  is,  heat  not  shown  by  the  thermometer. 

* i.  e.,  that  is. 


28 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Suppose  that  we  have  a pound  of  ice,  at  a tem- 
perature of  32°  Fah.,  and  that  we  mix  it  with  a 
pound  of  water  at  212°,  the  ice  will  be  melted  and 
we  shall  have  two  pounds  of  water  at  a temperature 
of  51°. 

Now,  if  we  take  a pound  of  water  at  a temperature 
of  32°  and  mix  it  with  a pound  of  water  at  212°, 
the  resulting  mixture  of  the  two  pounds  will  have 
a temperature  of  122°.  Hence  we  see  that  the  ice, 
in  melting,  has  absorbed  enough  heat  to  raise  two 
pounds  of  water  through  a temperature  of  122°  — 51° 
= 71°,  or  one  pound  through  142°,  and  we  say  that 
the  latent  heat  of  the  liquefaction  of  water  is  142°, 

The  latent  heat  of  the  evaporation  of  water  can 
be  determined  in  a similar  manner  by  condensing  a 
pound  of  steam  at  212°  Fah.  with  a given  weight  of 
water  at  a known  temperature,  and  also  by  mixing  a 
pound  of  water  at  a temperature  of  212°  Fah.  with 
the  &ame  amount  of  water  as  was  employed  in  the 
case  of  the  steam,  and  observing  the  difference  of 
temperature  of  the  resulting  mixtures. 

Thus,’ a pound  of  water  at  212°  mixed  with  ten 
pounds  at  60°  gives  eleven  pounds  at  74°.  A pound 
of  steam  at  212°  mixed  with  ten  pounds  of  water  at 
60°  gives  eleven  pounds  of  water  at  162°.  In  other 
wbrds,  the  steam  on  being  condensed  has  given  out 
heat  (which  was  not  previously  sensible  to  the  ther- 
mometer) enough  to  raise  eleven  pounds  of  water 
through  a temperature  of  162°  less  74°  equals  88°, 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


29 


or  one  pound  through  968^,  and  we  say  that  the 
latent  heat  of  steam  is  968°.  Other  authorities  give 
965°,  966°. 

If  a pound  of  mercury  and  a pound  of  water  be 
heated  to  the  same  temperature  and  allowed  to  cool, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  mercury  cools  80  times  as 
fast  as  the  water ; hence  we  say  that  the  specific  heat 
of  mercury  is  about  one-thirtieth  that  of  water. 

The  boiling-point  of  water  is  that  temperature  at 
which  the  tension  of  its  vapor  exactly  balances  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  But  the  temperature  at 
which  the  ebullition  of  water  begins  depends  upon  the 
elasticity  of  the  air  or  other  pressure. 

At  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  barometer  standing  at 
29.905  (or  nearly  80)  inches  of  mercury,  water  will 
boil  at  212°  Fah.  ;.but  the  higher  we  ascend  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  the  more  the  boiling-point  diminishes. 

Water  attains  its  greatest  density  at  89°  Fah.,  or 
7°  above  freezing. 

Water  presses  equally  in  every  direction,  finds  its 
own  level,  and  can  be  compressed  of  an  inch  in 
every  40,000  feet  by  each  atmosphere  or  pressure  of 
15  pounds  to  the  square  inch  of  pressure  applied ; 
but  when  the  pressure  is  removed,  its  elasticity  re- 
stores it  to  its  original  bulk. 

Water  becomes  solid  and  crystallized  as  ice  owing 
to  the  abstracting  of  its  heat. 

The  force  of  expansion  exerted  by  water  in  the  act 
of  freezing  has  been  found  irresistible  in  all  mechan- 
ical experiments  to  prevent  it. 

3* 


80 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Water  in  a vacuum  boils  at  about  98  degrees  Fah- 
renheit, and  assumes  a solid  at  32  degrees  in  the  at- 
mosphere, when  it  expands  its  original  bulk. 

Water,  after  being  long  kept  boiling,  affords  an  ice 
more  solid,  and  with  fewer  air  bubbles,  than  that 
which  is  formed  from  unboiled  water. 

Pure  water,  kept  for  a long  time  in  vacuo,  and 
afterwards  frozen  there,  freezes  much  sooner  than 
common  water  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  cold  in 
the  open  atmosphere. 

Ice  formed  of  water  thus  divested  of  its  air,  is 
much  more  hard,  solid,  heavy,  and  transparent  than 
common  ice. 

Ice,  after  it  is  formed,  continues  to  expand  by 
decrease  of  temperature ; to  which  fact  is  probably 
attributable  the  occasional  splitting  and  breaking  up 
of  the  ice  on  ponds,  etc. 

A cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62i  pounds ; a cubic 
foot  of  ice  weighs  57.5  pounds.  It  follows  that  ice  is 
nearly  one-twelfth  lighter  than  water. 

Now,  if  heat  be  applied  to  ice,  the  temperature  of 
which  is  below  freezing,  the  temperature  will  soon 
rise  to  32°  or  freezing,  but  any  further  application  of 
heat  cannot  increase  the  temperature  of  the  ice  until 
the  whole  mass  is  melted. 

The  specific  gravity  of  ice  is  .92,  and  specific 
gravity  of  water  is  1.000  — water  being  the  standard 
by  which  to  obtain  the  specific  gravity  of  all  solids, 
fluids,  and  even  gases.  Though  air  is  sometimes 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


31 


used  as  a standard  for  gases,  water  is  more  commonly 
used. 

The  specific  gravity  of  water  is  the  comparative 
weight  of  a given  bulk  of  water  to  the  same  bulk  of 
any  other  liquid.  Thus,  if  we  take  equal  measures 
of  the  several  different  liquids,  we  shall  find  that  they 
possess  very  different  weights. 

The  weight  of  a pint  of  water,  a pint  of  oil,  and  a 
pint  of  mercury  will  differ  very  materially.  The 
mercury  will  weigh  13.6  times  more  than  water  does, 
and  the  water  will  weigh  a good  deal  more  than  the 
oil. 

TABLE 


SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  WATER. 


1 Cubic  inch  is  equal  to  .036  pounds. 


12  Cubic  inches 

1 Cubic  foot 

1 Cubic  foot 

1.8  Cubic  foot 

35.8  Cubic  feet 

1 Cylindrical  inch 
12  Cylindrical  inches 
1 Cylindrical  foot 
1 Cylindrical  foot 
2.282  Cylindrical  feet 
45.64  Cylindrical  feet 
11.2  Imperial  gallons 

224  Imperial  gallons 

13.44  U.  S.  gallons 

268.8  U.  S.  gallons 


.432  “ 

62.5  “ 

7.50  U.  S.  gallons. 

112.00  pounds. 

2240.00  “ 

.02827  “ 

.339  “ 

49.08  ‘‘ 

6.00  TJ.  S.  gallons, 

112.00  pounds. 

2240.00  “ 

112.00  “ 

2240.00  “ 

112.00 

2240.00  “ 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 


SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES. 


Temperature 

Fahrenheit. 

Weight  of  a Cubic 
Foot  in  Pounds. 

Temperature 

Fahrenheit. 

Weight  of  a Cubic 
Foot  in  Pounds. 

40° 

62.408 

172° 

60.72 

42° 

62.406 

182° 

60.5 

52° 

62.377 

192° 

60.28 

62° 

62.321 

202° 

60.05 

72° 

62.25 

212° 

59.82 

82° 

62.15 

230° 

59.37 

92° 

62.04 

250° 

58.85 

102° 

61.92 

275° 

58.17 

112° 

61.78 

300° 

57.42 

122° 

61.63 

350° 

55.94 

132° 

61.47 

400° 

54.34 

142° 

61.30 

450° 

52.70 

152° 

61.11 

500° 

51.02 

162° 

60.92 

600° 

47.64 

Water  attains  a minimum  volume  and  a maximum 
density  at  39°  Fah. ; any  departure  from  that  tem- 
perature in  either  direction  is  accompanied  by  ex- 
pansion, so  that  8°  or  10°  of  cold  produces  about  the 
same  amount  of  expansion  as  8°  or  10°  of  heat. 


ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  TAKEN  FROM  SIX  DIFFERENT  WELLS. 
Chloride  sodium,  9.162  grains  in  a gallon. 

Carbonate  lime,  7.103  “ “ 

Carbonate  magnesia,  3.027  “ ** 

Sulphate  lime,  alumina,  lithia,  a trace  of  each. 

Chloride  sodium,  9.087  grains  in  a gallon. 

Carbonate  lime,  5.532  “ ‘‘  “ 


HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


33 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  BOILING-POINT  OP  PKESH  WATER  AT 
DIFFERENT  ALTITUDES  ABOVE  SEA-LEVEL. 


Boiling 
point 
in  deg. 
Fah. 

Altitude 
above  sea- 
level  in  feet. 

Boiling 
point 
in  deg. 
Fah. 

Altitude 
above  sea- 
level  in  feet. 

Boiling 
point 
in  deg. 
Fah. 

Altitude 
above  sea- 
level  in  feet. 

184° 

15221 

195° 

9031 

206° 

3115 

185 

14649 

196 

8481 

207 

2589 

186 

14075 

197 

7932 

208 

2063 

187 

13498 

198 

7381 

209 

1539 

188 

12934 

199 

6843 

210 

1025 

189 

12367 

200 

6304 

211 

512 

190 

11799 

201 

5764 

212 

sea-level  =0 

191 

11243 

202 

5225 

192 

10685 

203 

4697 

Below  sea-level. 

193 

10127 

204 

^ 4169 

213° 

1 511 

194 

9579 

205 

3642 

1 

AIR. 

The  atmosphere  is  known  to  extend  at  least  45 
miles  above  the  earth. 

Its  composition  is  about  79  measures  of  nitrogen  . 
gas  and  21  of  oxygen ; or  in  other  words,  air  consists 
of,  by  volume,  oxygen  21  parts,  nitrogen  79  parts; 
by  weight,  oxygen  77  parts,  nitrogen  23  parts. 

According  to  Dr.  Prout,  100  cubic  inches  of  air  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  when  the  barometer  stands 
at  30  inches,  and  at  a temperature  of  60®  Fah., 
weighs  about  31  grains,  being  thus  about  815  times 
lighter  than  water,  and  11,065  times  lighter  than 
mercury. 

C 


34 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Since  the  air  of  the  atmosphere  is  possessed  of 
weight,  it  must  be  evident  that  a cubic  foot  of  air  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth  has  to  support  the  weight  o^ 
all  the  air  directly  above  it,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
higher  we  ascend  up  in  the  atmosphere  the  lighter 
will  be  the  cubic  foot  of  air,  or  in  other  words,  the 
farther  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  less  will  be 
the  density  of  the  air. 

At  the  height  of  three  and  a half  miles  it  is  known 
that  the  atmospheric  air  is  only  half  as  dense  as  it  is 
at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

From  the  nature  of  fluids,  it  follows,  that  the  air 
of  the  atmosphere  presses  against  any  body  which 
comes  into  contact  with  it;  because  fluids  exert  pres- 
sure in  all  directions,  — upwards,  downwards,  side- 
wise,  and  oblique. 

It  is  also  known  that  the  pressure  on  any  point  is 
equal  to  the  weight  of  all  the  particles  of  the  fluid 
in  a perpendicular  line  between  the  point  in  contact 
and  the  surface  of  the  fluid. 

The  amount  of  pressure  of  a column  of  air 
whose  base  is  one  square  foot,  and  altitude  the 
height  of  the  atmosphere,  has  been  found  to  be  2156 
pounds  avoirdupois,  or  very  nearly  15  pounds  of 
pressure  on  every  square  inch  ; consequently,  it  is 
common  to  state  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  as 
equal  to  15  pounds  on  the  square  inch. 

If  any  gaseous  body  or  vapor,  such  as  steam,  exerts 
a pressure  equivalent  to  15  pounds  on  the  square 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


35 


inch,  then  the  foice  of  that  vapor  is  said  to  be  equal 
to  one  atmosphere ; if  the  vapor  be  equal  to  30 
pounds  on  every  square  inch,  then  it  is  equal  to  two 
atmospheres,  and  so  on.  Consequently,  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  capable  of  supporting  about  30 
inches  of  mercury,  or  a column  of  water  34  feet  high. 

It  is  also  found  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
is  not  constant  even  at  the  same  place ; at  the  equator, 
the  pressure  is  nearly  constant,  but  is  subject  to 
greater  change  in  the  high  latitudes. 

In  some  countries  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
varies  so  much  as  to  support  a column  of  mercury  so 
low  as  2.8  inches,  and  at  other  times  so  high  as  31, 
the  mean  being  29.5,  thus  making  the  average  pres- 
sure between  14  and  15  pounds  on  the  square  inch. 
But  in  scientific  books,"  generally,  the  pressure  is 
understood  in  round  numbers  to  be  15  pounds,  so 
that  a pressure  exerted  equal  to  1, 2,  3, 4,  etc.,  atmos- 
pheres, means  such  a pressure  as  would  support  30, 
60,  90, 120,  etc.,  inches  of  mercury  in  a perpendicular 
column,  or  15,  30, 45, 60,  etc.,  pounds  on  every  square 
inch. 

Air  is  a very  slow  conductor  of  heat,  and  is  some- 
times used  as  a non-conductor  in  hollow  walls  to 
prevent  the  radiation  of  heat. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  differs  at  different  lati- 
tudes; for  instance,  at  7 miles  above  the  surface 
of  the  earth  the  air  is  four  times  lighter  than  it  k*  at 
the  earth^s  surface ; at  14  miles  it  is  16  times  lighter, 
and  at  21  miles  it  is  64  times  lighter. 


HAND-BOOK  OP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Under  a pressure  of  tons  to  the  square  inch, 
air  becomes  as  dense,  and  would  weigh  as  much  per 
cubic  foot,  as  water. 

The  greatest  heat  of  air  in  the  sun  is  about  140^^ 
Fah.,  and  it  probably  never  exceeds  145®  Fah. 

If  a given  weight  of  air  at  0®  Fah.  be  raised  in 
temperature  to  461®  Fah.  under  a constant  pressure, 
it  is  expanded  to  twice  its  original  volume ; and  if 
heated  from  0®  Fah.  to  twice  461®,  or  922®,  its  origi- 
nal volume  is  trebled. 

One  cubic  foot  of  pure  air  at  62®  Fah.  and  14.7 
pounds  per  square  inch  pressure  weighs  .076097 
pound,  1.217  ounces  or  532.7  grains. 

Although  the  atmosphere  may  extend  to  the 
height  of  45  miles,  yet  its  lower  half  is  so  compressed 
as  to  occupy  only  3J  miles^  so  greatly  do  the  upper 
portions  expand  when  relieved  from  pressure.  Hence, 
at  the  height  of  3 J miles,  the  elasticity  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  ^ ; at  7 miles,  ^ ; at  10^  miles,  ^ ; at  14 
miles,  j’g,  etc. 

For  the  above  reasons  a pump  in  a higher  region 
will  not  lift  water  to  as  great  a height  as  in  a lower 
one.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere  lowers  or  becomes  colder  at  the  rate  of 
1®  Fah.  for  each  300  feet  of  ascent  above  the  earth’s 
surface ; but  this  is  liable  to  many  exceptions,  and 
varies  much  with  local  causes. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 


SHOWING  THE  EXPANSION  OF  AIR  BY  HEAT,  AND  THE  INCREASE 
OF  BULK  IN  PROPORTION  TO  INCREASE  OF  TEMPERATURE. 


Fahrenheit. 

Bulk. 

Fahrenheit 

Bulk. 

Temp.  32  Freezing-point. 

1000 

Temp. 

75  Temperate 

1099 

33 

(( 

1002 

u 

76  Summer  heat. 

1101 

(t 

34 

ft 

1004 

tt 

77 

it 

1104 

(( 

35 

ft 

1007 

tt 

78 

it 

1106 

(1 

36 

ft 

1009 

tf 

79 

ft 

1108 

(( 

37 

ft 

1012 

tt 

80 

ft 

1111 

(f 

38 

tf 

1015 

tt 

81 

it 

1112 

(C 

39 

tt 

1018 

tt 

82 

ft 

1114 

t( 

40 

tt 

1021 

ft 

83 

ft 

1116 

ft 

41 

ft 

1023 

tt 

84 

ft 

1118 

ft 

42 

it 

1025 

tf 

85 

it 

1121 

tf 

43 

ft 

1027 

tt 

86 

ft 

1123 

ft 

44 

tt 

1030 

ft 

87 

it 

1125 

ft 

45 

ft 

1032 

ff 

88 

tf 

1128 

ft 

46 

tt 

1034 

tt 

89 

tt 

1130 

if 

47 

ft 

1036 

it 

90 

if 

1132 

ft 

48 

ft 

1038 

it 

91 

tt 

1134 

ft 

49 

ft 

1040 

it 

92 

it 

1136 

ft 

50 

ft 

1043 

it 

93 

ft 

1138 

tt 

51 

tt 

1045 

tt 

94 

tt 

1140 

ft 

52 

tt 

1047 

tt 

95 

V it 

1142 

tf 

53 

ft 

1050 

it 

96  Blood  heat.... 

1144 

ft 

54 

ft 

1052 

it 

97 

if 

1146 

ff 

55 

ft 

1055 

tt 

98 

if 

1148 

tf 

56 

Temperate ... 

. 1057 

it 

99 

it 

1150 

tt 

57 

it 

1059 

it 

100 

ft 

1152 

ft 

58 

tt 

1062 

It 

110  Fever  heat  112  1173 

tt 

59 

ft 

1064 

tt 

120 

it 

1194 

tt. 

60 

ft 

1066 

it 

130 

it 

1215 

tt 

61 

ft 

1069 

tt 

140 

it 

1235 

tt 

62 

ft 

1071 

tt 

150 

It 

1255 

tf 

63 

ft 

1073 

tt 

160 

it 

1275 

ff 

64 

ft 

1075 

it 

170  Spirits  boil  176  1295 

ft 

65 

(( 

1077 

ft 

180 

ft 

1315 

tt 

66 

ft 

1080 

it 

190 

it 

1334 

tf 

67 

It 

1082 

ft 

200 

tt 

1364 

tt 

68 

tt 

1084 

ft 

210 

ft 

1372 

ff 

69 

ft 

1087 

ff 

212  Water  boils... 

1375 

ft 

70 

ft 

1089 

ff 

302 

tt 

1558 

tt 

71 

ft 

1091 

ft 

392 

it 

1739 

tt 

72 

ft 

1093 

tf 

482 

tt 

1919 

tt 

73 

ft 

1095 

it 

572 

it 

2098 

u 

74 

ft 

1097 

it 

680 

ft 

2312 

4 

9 


38 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Resistance  to  Motion  caused  by  the  Atmosphere, 

— The  resistance  against  a body  moving  in  a fluid  at 
rest  is  less  than  the  resistance  experienced  by  the 
same  body  placed  at  rest,  in  a fluid  moving  against 
it,  which  seems  to  denote  that  a fluid  in  motion 
separates  itself  less  easily  than  a fluid  at  rest. 

Thin  plates  meet  with  a greater  resistance  from 
the  air  than  a prismatic  body  presenting  the  same 
surface,  and  the  resistance  diminishes  according  as 
the  prism  is  longer. 

But  if  the  moving  body  be  a lengthened  prism,  the 
air  in  passing  along  its  sides  loses  a certain  propor- 
tion of  its  velocity,  and,  consequently,  on  reaching 
the  hind-face  of  the  prism,  extends  itself  behind  it 
with  a force  partially  diminished,  consequently  pro- 
ducing a partial  vacuum. 

RESISTANCE  OF  AIR  AGAINST  RAILROAD 
TRAINS. 

To  dispense  with  all  calculation  relative  to  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air,  the  following  table  (pp.  40,  41)  is 
subjoined  to  show  its  intensity  for  all  velocities  from 
5 to  35  miles  per  hour,  and  for  surfaces  of  from 
10  to  100  square  feet. 

Were  it  required  to  perform  the  calculation  for  a 
velocity  not  contained  in  the  table,  it  would  evidently 
suffice  to  seek  the  resistance  corresponding  to  half  that 
velocity,  and  to  multiply  the  resistance  found  by  4. 
Or,  on  the  contrary,  to  seek  the  resistance  corre- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


39 


spending  to  the  double  of  the  given  velocity,  and  to 
take  a quarter  of  the  result. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  against  a surface  of  100 
square  feet,  at  the  velocity  of  50  miles  per  hour,  is 
equal  to  four  times  the  resistance  of  the  air  against 
the  same  surface  at  25  miles  per  hour. 

By  means  of  the  table  in  question  will  be  ob- 
tained, without  calculation,  the  resistance  of  the  air 
expressed  in  pounds  for  any  velocity  of  the  moving 
body.  But  it  must  be  understood  that  the  table  sup- 
poses the  atmosphere  to  be  at  rest. 

If,  then,  there  be  a wind  of  some  intensity,  favor- 
able to  the  motion,  or  contrary  to  it,  account  must 
be  taken  of  that,  and  in  order  to  effect  this,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  observe  that  if  the  wind  is  opposed, 
the  train  will  move  through  the  air  with  the  velocity 
equal  to  the  difference  between  its  own  absolute  ve- 
locity and  that  of  the  wind. 

But  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  wind  is  favorable  to  the 
motion,  the  effect  of  the  velocity  of  the  train  through 
the  air  will  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  its  own  velocity 
augmented  by  that  of  the  wind. 

On  such  cases  the  velocity  of  the  wind  must  be 
first  measured  by  noting  the  time  taken  by  some 
light  body,  such  as  paper,  in  traversing  a space  pre- 
viously measured  on  the  ground. 

If  the  wind,  instead  of  being  precisely  contrary  or 
favorable  to  the  motion,  should  exert  its  action  in 
an  oblique  direction,  it  would  tend  to  displace  all  the 


40 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


cars  laterally,  and,  consequently,  from  the  conical 
form  of  the  wheels,  all  those  on  the  farther  side 
from  the  wind  would  turn  on  a different  diameter 
than  those  on  the  side  towards  the  wind. 

The  resistance  produced  will,  therefore,  be  the 
same  as  that  which  would  take  place  on  a curve  on 
which  the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  forces  were  not 
corrected,  and  that  resistance  would  necessarily  be 
very  considerable. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  KESISTANCE  OF  AIR  AGAINST  RAILROAD  TRAINS. 


Velocity 
of  motion 
in  miles 
per  hour. 

Resistance 
of  the  air  in 
pounds  per 
square  feet 
of  surface. 

Resistance  of  the  air  in  pounds;  the  effective  surface  of  the 
train  in  square  feet,  being 

20  ft. 

30  ft. 

40  ft. 

50  ft. 

60  ft. 

70  ft. 

80  ft. 

90  ft. 

100  ft. 

miles. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

5 

.07 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

6 

.10 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

7 

.13 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

. 11 

12 

13 

8 

.17 

3 

5 

7 

9 

10 

12 

14 

15 

17 

9 

.22 

4 

7 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

20 

22 

10 

.27  . 

5 

8 

11 

13 

16 

19 

22 

24 

27 

11 

.33 

7 

10 

13 

16 

20 

23 

26 

29 

33 

12 

.39 

8 

12 

15 

19 

23 

27 

31 

35 

39 

13 

.45 

9 

14 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

41 

45 

14 

.53 

11 

16 

21 

26 

32 

37 

42 

47 

53 

15 

.60 

12 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

16 

.69 

14 

21 

28 

34 

41 

48 

55 

62 

69 

17 

.78 

16 

23 

31 

39 

47 

54 

62 

70 

78 

18 

.87 

17 

26 

35 

44 

52 

61 

70 

78 

87 

19 

.97 

19 

29 

39 

49 

58 

68 

78 

87 

97 

20 

1.07 

22 

32 

43 

54 

65 

75 

86 

97 

107 

21 

1.19 

24 

36 

47 

59 

71 

83 

95 

107 

119 

22 

1.30 

26 

39 

52 

65 

78 

91 

104 

117 

130 

23 

1.42 

28 

43 

57 

71 

85 

100 

114 

128 

142 

24 

1.55 

31 

47 

62 

78 

93 

109 

124 

140 

155 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


41 


TABLE  — ( Continued) 

SHOWING  THE  KESISTANCE  OF  AIR  AGAINST  RAILROAD  TRAINS. 


Velooity 
of  motion 
in  miles 
per  hour. 

Resistance 
of  the  air  in 
pounds  per 
square  feet 
of  surface. 

Resistance  of  the  air  in  pounds ; the  effective  surface  of  the 
train  in  square  feet ^ being 

20  ft. 

30  ft. 

40  ft. 

50  ft. 

60  ft. 

70  ft. 

80  ft. 

90  ft. 

100  ft. 

miles. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

• 25 

1.68 

34 

50 

67 

84 

101 

118 

134 

151 

168 

26 

1.82 

36 

55 

73 

91 

109 

127 

146 

164 

182 

27 

1.96 

39 

59 

78 

98 

118 

137 

157 

176 

196 

28 

2.11 

42 

63 

84 

106 

127 

148 

169 

190 

211 

29 

2.26 

45 

68 

90 

113 

136 

158 

181 

203 

226 

30 

2.42 

48 

73 

97 

121 

145 

169 

194 

218 

242 

31 

2.58 

52 

77 

103 

129 

155 

181 

206 

232 

258 

32 

2.75 

55 

83 

110 

138 

165 

193 

220 

248 

275 

33 

2.93 

59 

88 

117 

147 

176 

205 

234 

264 

293 

34 

3.11 

62 

93 

124 

156 

187 

218 

249 

280 

311 

35 

3.29 

66 

99 

132 

165 

197 

230 

263 

296 

329 

Rule  to  calculate  Resistance  of  Train  at  a given  speed. 

Square  the  speed  in  miles  per  hour,  divide  this  by 
171,  and  add  8 to  the  quotient.  Result  is  the  resist- 
ance at  the  rails  in  pounds  per  ton  weight. 


Resistance  of  Trains  on  a level  at  different  speeds  in 
pounds  per  Ton  of  Load. 

The  resistance  of  curves  may  be  reckoned  as  1 per 
cent,  for  each  degree  of  curve  occupied  by  the  train. 
Imperfections  of  road  vary  from  5 to  40  per  cent. 
Strong  side  winds  vary  20  per  cent. 


Velocity  of  trains  in  miles  per 
hour 

10 

15 

20 

30 

40 

50 

Eesistance  on  straight  lines,  lbs. 
per  ton 

8^ 

9i 

m 

m 

m 

m 

Eesistance  with  sharp  curves  and 
strong  winds 

13 

14 

m 

20 

26 

34 

4* 


42 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


COMPAKATIVE  SCALE  OF  ENGLISH,  FEENCH, 
AND  GEKMAN  THEEMOMETEES. 


Boiling-point  100 
of  water. 


70 


40 


10 


10 


Mercury  freezes.  40 


212 

— 

200 

— 

— 

190 

— 

180 



170 

160 

150 

140 

— 



130 

— 

_ 

— 

120 



— 

110- 

— 

100 

— 

90 

— 

80 

— 

70 

— 

60 

— 

50 

40 

30 

20 

— 



10 

— 



ZERO 

— 

_ 



10 

— 



20 



_ 



30 





40 



— 

- 80  Boiling-point 
of  water. 

- 70 
60 
60 

- 40 

- 30 

20 

- 10 

- 0 Freezing-point 

- 10 
- 20 

30 

40 


The  0 of  Eeaumur  equal  32®  Fah. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


43 


THE  THERMOMETER. 

The  Thermometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring 
variations  of  heat  or  temperature.  The  principle 
upon  which  thermometers  are  constructed,  is  the 
change  of  volume  which  takes  place  in  bodies,  when 
their  temperature  undergoes  an  alteration.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  all  bodies  expand  when  heated,  and 
contract  when  cooled,  and  in  such  a manner  that 
under  the  same  circumstances  of  temperature  they 
return  to  the  same  dimensions. 

But  as  it  is  necessary,  not  merely  that  expansion 
and  contraction  take  place,  but  that  they  be  capable 
of  being  conveniently  observed  and  measured,  only 
a small  number  of  bodies  are  suitable  for  thermo- 
metrical  purposes. 

Solid  bodies,  for  example,  undergo  so  small  a 
change  of  volume,  with  moderate  variations  of 
temperature,  that  they  are  in  general  only  used  for 
measuring  very  high  temperatures,  as  the  heat  of 
furnaces  of  melting  metals,  etc. 

The  properties  of  Mercury,  which  render  it  prefer- 
able to  all  other  liquids  (unless  for  particular  pur- 
poses), ai’e  these:  1.  It  supports,  before  it  boils  and 
is  reduced  to  vapor,  more  heat  than  any  other  fluid, 
and  endui;e.s  a greater  cold  than  would  congeal  most 
other  liqij^s.  2.  It  takes  the  temperature  of  the 
medium  in  which  it  is  placed  more  quickly  than  any 
other  fluid.  Count  Rumford  found  that  mercury 


44 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


was  lieated  from  the  freezing-  to  the  boiling-point  of 
water  in  58  seconds,  while  water  took  133  seconds, 
and  air  617  seconds,  the  heat  applied  being  the  same 
in  all  the  three  cases.  3.  The  variations  of  its  volume, 
within  limits,  which  include  the  temperatures  most 
frequently  required  to  be  observed,  are  found  to  be 
perfectly  regular  and  proportional  to  the  variations 
of  temperature. 

The  Mercurial  Thermometer  consists  of  a bulb  and 
stem  of  glass  of  uniform  bore.  A sufficient  quantity 
of  mercury  having  been  introduced,  it  is  boiled  to 
expel  the  air  and  moisture,  and  the  tube  is  then 
hermetically  sealed. 

The  standard  points  are  ascertained  by  immersing 
the  thermometer  in  melting  ice,  and  in  the  steam  of 
water  boiling  under  the  pressure  of  14.7  pounds  on 
the  square  inch,  and  marking  the  positions  of  the  top 
of  the  column ; the  interval  between  those  points  is 
divided  into  the  proper  number  of  degrees  — 100  for 
the  Centigrade  scale ; 180  for  Fahrenheit’s ; and  80 
for  Reaumur^ s. 

In  Fahrenheit’s  time  it  was  supposed  that  the 
greatest  degree  of  cold  attainable  was  reached  by 
mixing  snow  and  common  salt,  or  snow  and  sal- 
ammoniac.  A thermometer  plunged  into  a mixture 
of  this  kind  was  found  to  fall  much  below  the  point 
indicated  by  melting  ice.  The  point  to  which  the 
mercury  fell  by  contraction,  when  plunged  in  this 
mixture,  Fahrenheit  marked  0 ; the  interval  be- 
tween this  and  the  freezing-point  he  divided  into 


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45 


thirty-two  equal  divisions,  hence  the  freezing-point 
came  to  be  indicated  by  32°. 

Then  equal  divisions  were  continued  upwards,  and 
the  mercury,  by  expansion,  reaching  212°,  when  the 
thermometer  was  immersed  in  boiling  water,  this 
212°  was  called  the  boiling-point.  This  is  briefly 
the  reason  for  Fahrenheit  adopting  his  method  of 
division,  and  why  he  has  212°  — 32°  = 180°  between 
the  freezing  and  the  boiling  points. 

But  a much  lower  temperature  than  Fahrenheit’s 
0°  has  been  observed  in  cold  countries,  and  as  mer- 
cury becomes  solid  at  39°  Fahrenheit  below  freezingy 
it  would  be  the  most  accurate  limit  to  the  scale,  as  it 
would  register  the  utmost  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
to  which  the  mercurial  thermometer  is  sensible. 

Centigrade  Scale.  — On  this  scale  the  space  be- 
tween the  freezing-  and  the  boiling-points  of  water 
is  divided  into  equal  parts,  the  zero  point  being 
placed,  as  in  Eeaumur’s,  at  freezing.  This  division 
being  in  harmony  with  our  decimal  arithmetic,  is 
better  adapted  than  Fahrenheit’s  or  Reaumur’s  scale 
for  scientific  purposes. 

Reaumur’s  Thermometer. — In  Reaumur’s  ther- 
mometer the  melting-point  of  ice  is  taken  as  zero, 
and  the  distance  between  that  and  the  boiling-point 
for  water  is  divided  into  80  equal  parts.  Reaumur 
having  observed  that  between  those  temperatures 
spirits  of  wine  (which  he  used  for  the  thermometric 
fluid)  expanded  from  1,000  to  1,080  parts.  This 
division  soon  became  general  in  France  and  other 


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HAND-BOOK  OP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


countries,  and  a great  number  of  valuable  observa^ 
tions  have  been  recorded  in  terms  of  it;  but  it  is 
now  seldom  used  in  works  of  science. 

Change  of  Zero. — There  is  a circumstance  con- 
nected with  the  mercurial  thermometer  which  re- 
quires to  be  attended  to,  when  very  exact  determina- 
tions of  temperature  are  to  be  made,  as  it  has  been 
observed  that  when  thermometers  which  have  been 
constructed  for  several  years  are  placed  in  melting 
ice,  the  mercury  stands  in  general  higher  than  the 
zero  point  of  the  scale ; and  this  circumstance,  which 
renders  the  scale  inaccurate,  has  been  usually  ascribed 
to  the  slowness  with  which  the  glass  of  the  bulb  ac- 
quires its  permanent  arrangement,  after  having  been 
heated  to  a high  degree  in  boiling  the  mercury. 

In  very  nice  experiments  it  is  always  necessary  to 
verify  the  zero  point;  for  it  was  found  that  when 
thermometers  have  been  kept  during  a certain  time 
in  a low  temperature,  the  zero  point  rises,  but  falls 
when  they  have  been  kept  in  a high  temperature, 
and  this  remark  applies  equally  to  old  thermometers 
and  to  those  which  have  been  recently  constructed. 

Absolute  Zero. — An  absolute  zero  is  a theoretical 
and  imaginary  term,  as  an  absolute  zero  is  only  sup- 
posed to  be  the  point  where  heat-motion  ceased  en- 
tirely, and  is  fixed  at  461^  Fah.  below  the  zero  of 
the  common  thermometer. 

The  rate  of  expansion  of  mercury  with  rise  of 
temperature  increases  as  the  temperature  becomes 
higher ; from  which  it  follows,  that  if  a thermometer 


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47 


showing  the  dilation  of  mercury  simply  were  made 
to  agree  with  an  air  thermometer  at  82°  and  212°, 
the  mercurial  thermometer  would  show  lower  tem- 
peratures than  the  air  thermometer  between  those 
standard  points  and  higher  temperatures  beyond  them. 

Spirit  Thermometers  are  used  to  measure  temper- 
atures at  and  below  the  freezing-point  of  mercury. 
Their  deviations  from  the  air  thermometer  are 
greater  than  those  of  the  mercurial  thermometer. 

Solid  Thermometers. — Solid  thermometers  are 
sometimes  used,  which  indicate  temperatures  by 
showing  the  difference  between  the  expansions  of  a 
pair  of  bars  of  two  substances  whose  rates  of  ex- 
pansion are  different.  When  such  thermometers  are 
used  to  indicate  temperatures  higher  than  the  boiling 
point  of  mercury  under  one  atmosphere  (about  676° 
Fah.),  they  are  called  Pyrometers. 

Fixed  Temperatures  are  the  boiling-point*  for 
water  and  the  melting-point  for  ice. 

Rules  for  comparing  Degrees  of  Temperature  indicated 
by  different  Thermometers : 

Rule  I. — Multiply  degrees  of  Centigrade  by  9,  and 
divide  by  5 ; or  multiply  degrees  of  Eeaumur  by  9, 
and  divide  by  4.  Add  82  to  the  quotient  in  either 
case,  and  the  sum  is  degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

Rule  II.  — From  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  subtract 
82 ; multiply  the  remainder  by  5,  and  divide  by  9 
for  degrees  of  Centigrade;  or  multiply  by  4 and 
divide  by  9 for  degrees  of  Reaumur. 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DANFORTH  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE. 


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49 


ELASTIC  FLUIDS  AND  VAPORS. 

Elastic  fluids  are  divided  into  two  classes — perma- 
nent gases  and  vapors.  The  gases  cannot  be  liquefied 
under  ordinary  conditions  of  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture ; whereas  the  vapors  are  readily  reduced  to  the 
liquid  form  by  pressure  or  diminution  of  tempera- 
ture. In  respect  of  their  mechanical  properties 
there  is,  however,  no  essential  difference  between  the 
two  classes. 

Elastic  fluids,  in  a state  of  equilibrium,  are  sub- 
ject to  the  action  of  two  forces:  namely,  gravity, 
and  a molecular  force  acting  from  particle  to  particle. 

Gravity  acts  on  the  gases  in  the  same  manner  as 
on  all  other  material  substances ; but  the  action  of 
the  molecular  forces  is  altogether  different  from  that 
which  takes  place  among  the  elementary  particles 
of  solids  and  liquids;  for,  in  the  case  of  solid  bodies, 
the  molecules  strongly  attract  each  other  (hence  re- 
sults their  cohesion),  and,  in  the  case  of  liquids,  exert 
a feeble  or  evanescent  attraction,  so  as  to  be  indifferent 
to  internal  motion ; but,  in  the  case  of  the  gases,  the 
molecular  forces  are  repulsive,  and  the  molecules, 
yielding  to  the  action  of  these  forces,  tend  incessantly 
to  recede  from  each  other,  and,  in  fact,  do  recede 
until  their  further  separation  is  prevented  by  an  ex- 
terior obstacle. 

Thus,  air  confined  within  a close  vessel  exerts  a 
constant  pressure  against  the  interior  surface,  which 
5 D 


50 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


is  not  sensible,  only  because  it  is  balanced  by  the 
equal  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  exterior  sur- 
face. This  pressure  exerted  by  the  air  against  the 
sides  of  a vessel  within  which  it  is  confined,  is  called 
its  elasticity,  elastic  force,  or  tension. 

Conditions  of  Equilibrium. — In  order  that  all  the 
parts  of  an  elastic  fluid  may  be  in  equilibrium,  one 
condition  only  is  necessary : namely,  that  the  elastic 
force  be  the  same  at  every  point  situated  in  the  same 
horizontal  plane.  This  condition  is  likewise  neces- 
sary to  the  equilibrium  of  liquids,  and  the  same  cir- 
cumstances give  rise  to  it  in  both  cases : namely,  the 
mobility  of  the  particles,  and  the  action  of  gravity 
upon  them. 

The  density  of  bodies  being  inversely  as  their 
volumes,  the  law  of  Mariotte  may  be  otherwise  ex- 
pressed by  saying  the  density  of  an  elastic  fluid  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  pressure  it  sustains. 
Under  the  pressure  of  a single  atmosphere,  the 
density  of  air  is  about  the  770th  part  of  that  of 
water ; whence  it  follows  that,  under  the  pressure  of 
770  atmospheres,  air  is  as  dense  as  water. 

The  average  atmospheric  pressure  being  thus 
equal  to  that  of  a column  of  water  of  about  34  feet  in 
altitude  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  a depth  of  26,180 
(equals  770  multiplied  by  34)  feet,  or  5 miles,  air 
would  be  heavier  than  water;  and  though  it  should 
still  remain  in  a gaseous  state,  it  would  be  incapable 
of  rising  to  the  surface. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


51 


CALORIC. 

The  ordinary  application  of  the  word  heat  implies 
the  sensation  experienced  on  touching  a body  hotter, 
or  of  a higher  temperature ; whilst  the  term  caloric 
provides  for  the  expression  of  every  conceivable 
existence  of  temperature. 

Caloric  is  usually  treated  as  if  it  were  a material 
substance;  but,  like  light  and  electricity,  its  true 
nature  has  yet  to  be  determined. 

Caloric  passes  through  difierent  bodies  with  differ- 
ent degrees  of  velocity.  This  has  led  to  the  division 
of  bodies  into  conductors  and  non-conductors  of  ca- 
loric; the  former  includes  such  bodies  as  metals, 
which  allow  caloric  to  pass  freely  through  their  sub- 
stance, and  the  latter  comprises  those  that  do  not 
give  an  easy  passage  to  it,  such  as  stones,  glass,  wood, 
charcoal,  etc. 

Radiation  of  Caloric.  — When  heated  bodies  are 
exposed  to  the  air,  they  lose  portions  of  their  heat 
by  projections  in  right  lines  into  space  from  all  parts 
of  their  surface.  Radiation  is  effected  by  the  nature 
of  the  surface  of  the  body : thus,  black  and  rough 
surfaces  radiate  and  absorb  more  heat  than  lignt 
and  polished  surfaces.  Bodies  which  radiate  heat 
best,  absorb  it  best. 

Reflection  of  Caloric  differs  from  radiation,  as 
the  caloric  is  in  this  case  reflected  from  the  surface 
without  entering  the  substance  of  the  body.  Hence, 


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HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


the  body  which  radiates,  and  consequently  absorbs 
most  caloric,  reflects  the  least,  and  vice  versa. 

Latent  caloric  is  that  which  is  insensible  to  the 
touch,  or  incapable  of  being  detected  by  the  ther- 
mometer. The  quantity  of  heat  necessary  to  enable 
ice  to  assume  the  fluid  state,  is  equal  to  that  which 
would  raise  the  temperature  of  the  same  weight  of 
water,  142°  Fah.,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  heat  is 
set  free  from  water  when  it  assumes  the  solid  form. 

Sensible  caloric  is  free  and  uncombined,  passing 
from  one  substance  to  another,  aflecting  the  senses  in 
its  passage,  determining  the  height  of  the  thermometer, 
and  giving  rise  to  all  the  results  which  are  attributed 
to  this  active  principle. 

Evaporation  produces  cold,  because  caloric  must 
be  absorbed  in  the  formation  of  vapor,  a large  quan- 
tity of  it  passing  from  a sensible  to  a latent  state,  the 
capacity  for  heat  of  the  vapor  formed  being  greater 
than  that  of  the  fluid  from  which  it  proceeds. 

HEAT. 

Heat  is  one  form  of  mechanical  power,  or,  more 
properly,  a given  quantity  of  heat  is  the  equivalent 
of  a determinate  amount  of  mechanical  power ; and 
as  heat  is  capable  of  producing  power,  so  contrari- 
wise power  is  capable  of  producing  heat. 

As  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  a standard  for 
measuring  the  amount  of  heat  absorbed  or  evolved 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


53 


during  any  operation,  in  this  country  the  standard 
unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a pound  of  water  1°  Fah.,  or  from 
32°  to  33°  Fah. 

Specific  Heat. — Different  bodies  require  very 
different  quantities  of  heat  to  effect  in  them  the 
same  change  of  temperature.  The  capacity  of  a 
body  for  heat  is  termed  its  “ specific  heat,”  and  may 
be  defined  as  the  number  of  units  of  heat  necessary 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  1 pound  of  that  body 
1°  Fah. 

When  a substance  is  heated  it  ekpands,  and  its 
temperature  is  increased.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  heat  is  required  both  to  raise  the  temperature 
and  to  increase  the  distance  between  the  particles  of 
the  substance. 

The  heat  used  in  the  latter  case  is  converted  into 
interior  work,  and  is  not  sensible  to  the  thermome- 
ter ; but  it  will  be  given  out,  if  the  temperature  of 
the  substance  is  reduced  to  the  original  point. 

Thus,  while  heat  is  apparently  lost,  it  is  only 
stored  up,  ready  to  do  work,  and  the  substance  pos- 
sesses a certain  amount  of  potential  energy,  or  possi- 
bility of  doing  work. 

Now,  as  difierent  substances  vary  greatly  in  their 
molecular  constitution,  expanding  and  contracting 
the  same  amount  with  widely  differing  degrees  of 
force,  it  is  to  be^  expected  that  the  quantity  of  heat 
that  will  raise  one  substance  to  a given  temperature 
5* 


M 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


may  produce  a less  or  greater  degree  of  sensible 
heat  to  another ; and  we  find  in  practice  that  such 
is  the  case. 

The  condition  of  heat  is  measured  as  a quantity, 
and  its  amounts  in  diflferent  bodies  and  under  differ- 
ent circumstances  are  compared  by  means  of  the 
changes  in  some  measurable  phenomenon  produced 
by  its  transfer  or  disappearance. 

In  so  using  changes  of  temperature,  it  is  not  to  be 
taken  for  granted  that  equal  differences  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  same  body  correspond  to  equal  quantities 
of  heat.  This  is  the  case,  indeed,  for  perfectly  gase- 
ous bodies ; but  that  is  a fact  only  known  by  experi- 
ment. 

On  bodies  in  other  conditions,  equal  differences  of 
temperature  do  not  exactly  correspond  to  equal 
quantities  of  heat.  To  ascertain,  therefore,  by  an 
experiment  on  the  changes  of  temperature  of  any 
given  substances,  what  proportion  two  quantities  of 
heat  bear  to  each  other,  the  only  method  which  is 
of  itself  sufficient,  in  the  absence  of  all  other  experi- 
mental data,  is  the  comparison  of  the  weights  of 
that  substance  which  are  raised  from  the  same  low 
temperature  to  a high  or  fixed  temperature. 

The  Unit  of  Heat.  — The  unit  of  heat,  or  thermal 
unit  employed,  is  the  quantity  of  heat,  as  before 
stated,  that  would  raise  1 pound  of  pure  water  1° 
Fah.,  or  from  39"^  to  40^  Fah. 

The  reason  for  selecting  * that  part  of  the  scale 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


55 


which  is  nearest  the  temperature  of  the  greatest 
density  of  water,  is  because  the  quantity  of  heat 
corresponding  to  an  interval  of  one  degree  in  a 
given  weight  of  water  is  not  exactly  the  same  in 
different  parts  of  the  scale  of  temperature. 

Latent  Heat.  — Latent  heat  means  a quantity  of 
heat  which  has  disappeared,  having  been  employed 
to  produce  some  change  other  than  elevation  of  tem- 
perature. By  exactly  reversing  that  change,  the 
quantity  of  heat  which  had  disappeared  is  repro- 
duced. 

When  a body  is  said  to  possess  or  contain  so  much 
latent  heat,  what  is  meant  is  simply  this ; that  the 
body  is  in  a condition  into  which  it  was  brought 
from  a former  different  condition  by  transferring  to 
it  a quantity  of  heat  which  did  not  raise  its  tem- 
perature, the  change  of  condition  having  been  dif- 
ferent from  change  of  temperature,  and  that  by 
restoring  the  body  to  its  original  condition  in  such 
a manner  as  exactly  to  reverse  the  former  process. 
The  quantity  of  heat  formerly  expended  can  be  re- 
produced in  the  body  and  transferred  to  other  bodies. 

When  a body  passes  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid 
state,  its  temperature  remains  stationary,  or  nearly 
so,  at  a certain  melting  point,  during  the  whole  oper- 
ation of  melting,  and  in  order  to  make  that  opera- 
tion go  on,  a quantity  of  heat  must  be  transferred  to 
the  substance  melted,  having  a certain  amount  for 
each  unit  of  weight  of  the  substance.  That  heat 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


does  not  raise  the  temperature  of  the  substance,  but 
disappears  in  causing  its  condition  to  change  from 
the  solid  to  the  liquid  state. 

When  a substance  passes  from  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  state,  its  temperature  remains  stationary,  or 
nearly  so,  during  the  whole  operation  of  freezing  ; a 
quantity  of  heat  equal  to  the  latent  heat  of  fusion 
is  produced  in  the  body,  and  in  order  that  the  oper- 
ation of  freezing  may  go  on,  that  heat  must  be 
transferred  from  that  body  to  some  other  substance. 

Sensible  Heat. — Sensible  heat  is  that  which  is 
sensible  to  the  touch  or  measurable  by  the  ther- 
mometer. 

Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat.  — The  mechani- 
cal equivalent  of  heat  is  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed by  the  conversion  of  one  unit  of  heat  into 
work.  This  has  been  determined  to  be  equal  in 
amount  to  the  work  required  to  raise  772  pounds 
one  foot  high,  or  one  pound  772  feet  high.  And  as 
heat  and  work  are  mutually  convertible,  if  a body 
weighing  one  pound,  after  falling  through  a height 
of  772  feet,  were  to  have  its  motion  suddenly  arrested, 
it  would  develop  sufficient  heat  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  a pound  of  water  one  degree. 

If  a pound  of  water,  at  a temperature  of  212° 
Fah.,  is  converted  into  steam,  the  latter  will  have  a 
volume  of  about  27  J cubic  feet.  Now,  suppose  that 
the  water  is  evaporated  in  a long  cylinder,  of  exactly 
one  foot  cross  section,  open  to  the  atmosphere  at  the 


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57 


top.  When  all  the  water  in  the  cylinder  has  disap- 
peared, there  will  be  a column  of  steam  27i  feet 
high,  which  has  risen  to  this  height  against  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  being  nearly  15  pounds 
per  square  inch,  the  pressure  per  square  foot  is  2,117 
pounds ; and  the  external  work  performed  by  the 
water,  in  changiug  to  steam,  will  be  an  amount  re- 
quired to  raise  2,117  pounds  to  a height  of  27i  feet, 
or  about  57,688  foot-pounds. 

Now,  since  772  foot-pounds  of  work  require  one 
unit  of  heat,  the  external  work  will  take  up  57,688 
divided  by  772,  equals  74.72  units  of  heat. 

But  it  has  been  shown  that  the  total  number  of 
units  of  heat  required  to  change  water  into  steam  is 
about  968  (more  accurately,  966.6).  Hence  the  in- 
ternal work  will  be  equal  to  an  amount  developed 
by  the  conversion  of  966.6  less  74.72,  equals  891.88 
units  of  heat  into  work,  and  this  will  equal  891.88, 
multiplied  by  772,  equals  688,531  foot-pounds. 

Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat.  — The  mechanical 
theory  of  heat  is  now  generally  adopted.  It  con- 
siders that  heat  and  work  are  interchangeable,  and 
on  this  theory  can  be  explained  what  becomes  of 
the  latent  heat.  All  solid  bodies  are  supposed  to 
be  made  up  of  molecules,  which  are  not  in  contact, 
but  are  prevented  from  separating  by  a force  called 
cohesion. 

If  a body  is  heated  to  a sufficient  temperature,  the 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


force  of  expansion  becomes  equal  to  that  of  cohesion, 
and  the  body  is  liquefied ; and  if  still  more  heat  is 
applied,  the  force  of  expansion  exceeds  that  of  co- 
hesion, and  the  liquid  becomes  a vapor. 

But  in  each  of  these  changes  work  is  performed, 
and  the  heat  that  is  supplied  is  converted  into  work. 

For  instance,  if  ice  is  at  a temperature  of  32°, 
and  heat  is  applied,  this  is  converted  into  the  work 
that  is  developed  in  changing  ice  into  water,  and  we 
say  that  heat  becomes  latent,  and  when  water  is  at 
212°,  and  we  continue  to  apply  heat;  this  is  con- 
verted into  the  work  that  must  be  done  in  changing 
the  water  into  steam. 

Dynamic  Equivalent  of  Heat.  — It  is  a matter  of 
ordinary  observation  that  heat,  by  expanding  bodies, 
is  a source  of  mechanical  energy ; and  conversely, 
that  mechanical  energy,  being  expanded  either  in 
compressing  bodies  or  in  friction,  is  a source  of  heat. 

In  all  other  cases  in  which  heat  is  produced  by  the 
expenditure  of  mechanical  energy,  or  mechanical 
energy  by  the  expenditure  of  heat,  some  other  change 
is  produced  besides  that  which  is  principally  con- 
sidered ; and  this  prevents  the  heat  and  the  mechan- 
ical energy  from  being  exactly  equivalent. 

Power  of  Expansion  by  Heat.  — When  bodies  ex- 
pand, the  molecules  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
pushed  farther  asunder  by  the  oscillatory  motion 
communicated  to  them.  The  heat  may  be  described 
as  entering  the  substance  and  immediately  setting  to 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


59 


work  to  separate  the  particles.  The  power  or  energy 
it  exerts  to  do  this  is  immense. 

Moleculap  or  Atomic  Force  of  Heat.  — All  mole- 
cules are  under  the  influence  of  two  opposite  forces. 
The  one,  molecular  attraction,  tends  to  bring  them 
together ; the  other,  heat,  tends  to  separate  them ; its 
intensity  varies  with  its  velocity  of  vibration.  Molec- 
ular attraction  is  only  exerted  at  infinitely  small 
distances,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  cohesion, 
affinity,  and  adhesion. 

Total  or  Actual  Heat. — When  a substance,  by  the 
expenditure  of  energy  in  friction,  is  brought  from  a 
condition  of  total  privation  of  heat  to  any  particular 
condition  as  to  heat.  Then  if  we,  from  the  total 
energy  so  expanded,  subtract,  first,  the  mechanical 
work  performed  by  the  action  of  the  substance  on 
external  bodies,  through  changes  of  its  volume,  dur- 
ing such  heating;  secondly,  the  mechanical  work 
due  to  mutual  actions  between  the  particles  of  the 
substance  itself  during  such  heating,  the  remainder 
will  represent  the  energy  which  is  employed  in  mak- 
ing the  substance  hot. 

Communication  of  Heat. — Heat  may  be  commu- 
nicated from  a hot  body  to  a cold  one  in  three  ways 
— by  radiation,  conduction,  and  circulation. 

The  rapidity  with  which  heat  radiates  varies, 
other  things  being  equal,  as  the  square  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  hot  body  in  excess  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cold  one ; so  that  a body,  if  made  twice 


60 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


as  hot,  will  lose  a degree  of  temperature  in  one-fourth 
of  the  time ; if  made  three  times  as  hot,  it  will  lose 
a degree  of  temperature  in  one-ninth  of  the  time, 
and  so  on  in  all  other  proportions. 

Transmission  of  Heat.  — Tredgold  and  others 
have  made  experiments  to  ascertain  the  rate  at  which 
heat  is  transferred  from  metal  to  gases  and  from 
gases  to  metal.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  rate  of  transference  is  as  the  differ- 
ence of  temperature.  But  in  practice  the  conditions 
are  different  from  those  in  the  experiment ; generally, 
in  experiments,  the  air  has  been  still,  and  the  gases 
moving  under  natural  draft ; but  in  locomotive  prac- 
tice, the  velocity  of  the  gases  is  so  great  as  to  render 
the  results  of  most  experiments  inapplicable. 

Effects  of  Heat  on  the  Circulation  of  Water  in 
Boilers. — As  the  particles  of  water  rise  heated  from 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  other  particles  necessarily 
subside  into  their  places,  and  it  is  a point  of  con- 
siderable importance  to  ascertain  the  direction  in 
which  the  currents  approach  the  plate  to  receive 
heat.  A particle  of  water  cannot  leave  the  heated 
plate  until  there  is  another  particle  at  hand  to  occupy 
its  position  ; and,  therefore,  unless  a due  succession 
in  the  particles  is  provided  for,  the  plate  cannot  get 
rid  of  its  heat,  and  the  proper  formation  of  steam  is 
hindered. 

But  it  must  be  understood  that  vaporization  does 
not  depend  on  the  quantity  of  heat  applied  to  the 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  62 

plate,  but  on  the  quantity  of  heat  abstracted  from  it 
by  the  particles  of  water. 

Medium  Heat. — The  medium  heat  of  the  globe  is 
placed  at  50°  ; at  the  torrid  zone  75°  ; at  moderate 
climates  50°  ; near  the  Polar  regions  36°  Fah. 

The  extremes  of  natural  heat  are  from  — 70°  to 
120°  ; of  artificial  heat,  from  — 166°  to  36000°  Fah. 


LATENT  HEAT  OF  FUSION. 


FLUIDS. 

VAPORS. 

Fah. 

Ice 142° 

Sulphur 168 

Lead 9.8 

Beeswax 176 

Zinc 60.6 

Fah. 

Steam 966.6° 

Vinegar 875 

Ammonia 860 

Alcohol 372 

Ether 174 

TABLE 


SHOWING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  UPON  DIFFERENT  BODIES. 


Fah. 

Cast-iron,  thoroughly ) 

smelted J 

Fine  gold  melts 2282 

Fine  silver  “ 1832 

Copper  “ 2160 

Brass  “ 1900 

Red  heat,  visible  by  day  1077 
Iron  red-hot  in  twi- ) qq. 

light 1 

Common  fire 790 

Fah. 

Lead  melts. 608° 

Bismuth  “ 504 

Tin  446 

Tin  and  Bismuth, ) 
equal  parts,  melt...  j 

Tin,  3 parts.  Bismuth  S 

5,  and  Lead  2 parts,  > 212 

melt J 

Alcohol  boils 174 

Ether  98 

Iron,  bright  red  in  the  | 

dark j 

Zinc  melts 680 

Quicksilver  boils 648 

Linseed  oil 600 

Human  blood  (heat  of)  98 

Strong  wine  freezes 20 

Brandy  “ ....  7 

Mercury  melts — 39 

6 


62 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


roads,  has  a brighter  record  than  any  other  branch  of  mechanical  engineering. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


63 


COMBUSTION. 

Combustion  or  burning  is  a rapid  chemical  com- 
bination. In  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  com- 
bustible means  a body  capable  of  combining  rapidly 
with  oxygen  so  as  to  produce  heat. 

No  substance  in  nature  is  combustible  of  itself,  to 
whatever  degree  of  heat  it  may  be  exposed ; nor  can 
it  be  ignited  only  when  in  presence  of  or  in  mechan- 
ical mixture  with  air,  or  its  vital  element,  oxygen, 
because  combustion  is  continuous  ignition,  and  can 
only  be  made  to  exist  by  maintaining  in  the  combus- 
tible mixture  the  heat  necessary  to  ignite  it. 

Chemical  combination,  in  every  case,  is  accom- 
panied by  a production  of  heat;  every  decomposi- 
tion, by  a disappearance  of  heat  equal  in  amount  to 
that  which  is  produced  by  the  combination  of  the 
elements  which  are  to  be  separated. 

Y"hen  a complex  chemical  action  takes  place  in 
which  various  combinations  and  decompositions  occur 
simultaneously,  the  heat  obtained  is  the  excess  of  the 
heat  produced  •by  the  combinations  above  the  heat, 
which  disappears  in  consequence  of  the  decomposi- 
tions. 

Sometimes  the  heat  produced  is  subject  to  a further 
deduction,  on  account  of  heat  which  disappears  in 
melting  or  evaporating  some  of  the  substances  which 
combine  either  before  or  during  the  act  of  combina- 
tion. 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Substances  combine  chemically  in  certain  proper- 
tions  only.  To  each  of  the  substances  known  in 
chemistry,  a certain  number  can  be  assigned,  called 
its  chemical  equivalent,  having  these  properties:  — 
1st.  That  the  proportions  by  weight  in  which  sub- 
stances combine  chemically  can  all  be  expressed  by 
their  chemical  equivalents,  or  by  simple  multiples 
of  their  chemical  equivalents.  2d.  That  the  chemical 
equivalent  of  a compound  is  the  sum  of  the  chemical 
equivalents  of  its  constituents. 

Chemical  equivalents  are  sometimes  called  atomic 
weights  or  atoms,  in  accordance  with  the  hypothesis 
that  they  are  proportional  to  the  weights  of  the  sup- 
posed atoms  of  bodies,  or  smallest  similar  parts  into 
which  bodies  are  assumed  to  be  divisible  by  known 
forces.  The  term  atom  is  convenient  from  its  short- 
ness, and  can  be  used  to  mean  “chemical  equivalent’’ 
without  necessarily  affirming  or  denying  the  hypoth- 
esis from  which  it  is  derived,  and  which,  how  prob- 
able soever  it  may  be,  is,  like  other  molecular 
hypotheses,  incapable  of  absolute  proof. 

The  chief  elementary  combustible  constituents  of 
ordinary  fuel  are  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Sulphur  is 
another  combustible  constituent  of  ordinary  fuel,  but 
its  quantity  is  small  and  its  heating  power  of  no 
practical  value. 

Coal  is  composed,  so  far  as  combustion  is  con- 
cerned, of  solid  carbon  and  a gas  consisting  of  hy- 
drogen and  carbon. 


HA2S^D-B00K  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


65 


When  the  coal  is  heated,  it  first  discharges  its  gas ; 
the  solid  carbon  left  then  ignites  in  presence  of  oxy- 
gen, and  will  retain  the  temperature  necessary  to 
combustion  so  long  as  oxygen  is  supplied. 

The  Ingredients  of  Fuel. — Fixed  or  free  carbon 
which  is  left  in  the  form  of  charcoal  or  coke  after 
the  volatile  ingredients  of  the  fuel  have  been  distilled 
away.  This  ingredient  burns  either  wholly  in  the 
solid  or  partly  in  the  solid  and  partly  in  the  gaseous 
state ; the  latter  part  being  first  dissolved  by  previ- 
ously formed  carbonic  acid,  as  already  explained. 

Hydrocarbons,  such  as  gas,  pitch,  tar,  naphtha,  etc., 
all  of  which  must  pass  into  the  gaseous  state  before 
being  burned.  If  mixed  on  their  first  issuing  from 
among  the  burning  carbon  with  a large  quantity  of 
air,  these  inflammable  gases  are  completely  burned, 
with  a transparent  blue  flame,  producing  carbonic 
acid  and  steam. 

Mixture  of  Fuel  and  Air. — In  burning  charcoal, 
coke,  and  coals  which  contain  a small  proportion 
only  of  hydrocarbons,  a supply  of  air  suflicient  for 
complete  combustion  will  enter  from  the  ash-pit 
through  the  bars  of  the  grate,  provided  there  is  a 
sufficient  draught,  and  that  care  is  taken  to  distrib- 
ute the  fresh  fuel  evenly  over  the  fire,  and  in  mod- 
erate quantities  at  a time. 

Available  Heat  of  Combustion.  — The  available 
heat  of  combustion  of  one  pound  of  a given  sort  of 
fuel,  is  that  part  of  the  total  heat  of  combustion 
6*  E 


66 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


which  is  communicated  to  the  body,  to  heat  which 
the  fuel  is  burned. 

Anthracite  Coal. — The  chemical  composition  of 
anthracite  coal  is  similar  to  charcoal,  from  which  it 
differs  chiefly  in  its  form,  being  very  hard  and  com- 
pact, and  in  the  greater  quantity  of  ashes  which  it 
contains.  It  is,  like  charcoal,  unaltered  in  form  after 
exposure  to  the  strongest  heat;  even  after  passing 
through  a blast  furnace  it  has  equally  as  sharp 
edges,  and  is  in  form  exactly  as  it  was  before. 

COMPOSITIONS  OF  DIFFEEENT  KINDS  OF 
ANTHRACITE  COAL. 


Carbon. 

Volatile 

matter. 

Ashes. 

Specific 

gravity. 

Lehigh  coal 

88.50 

7.50 

4.00 

1.61 

Schuylkill  coal 

92.07 

5.03 

2.90 

1.57 

Pottsville 

94.10 

1.40 

4.50 

1.50 

Pinegrove... 

79.57 

7.15 

3.28 

1.54 

Wilkesbarre 

88.90 

7.68 

3.49 

1.40 

Carbondale 

90.23 

7.07 

2.70 

1.40 

The  analysis  of  anthracite  shows  good  coal  of  that 
class  to  be  composed  of  90.45  carbon,  2.43  hydro- 
gen, 2.45  oxygen,  some  nitrogen,  and  4.67  ashes. 

The  ashes  generally  consist,  like  those  of  bitumi- 
nous coal,  of  silex,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  and 
chlorides,  which  generally  evaporate  and  condense  on 
cold  objects  in  the  form  of  white  films. 

Anthracite  is  not  so  inflammable  as  either  dry  wood 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


67 


or  bituminous  coal,  but  it  may  be  made  to  burn 
quite  as  vividly  as  either,  by  exposing  it  to  a strong 
draft,  or  in  a large  mass  to  the  action  of  the  air. 

The  Quantity  of  Air  Required  for  the  Combustion 
of  Anthracite  Coal. — In  view  of  the  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen required  to  unite  chemically  with  the  various 
constituents  of  the  coal,  we  find  that  in  100  pounds  of 
anthracite  coal,  consisting  of  91  per  cent,  of  carbon 
and  9 per  cent,  of  the  other  matter,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  have  242.66  pounds  of  oxygen,  since  to  saturate  a 
pound  of  carbon  by  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid 
requires  21  pounds  of  oxygen.  To  saturate  a pound 
of  hydrogen  in  the  formation  of  water,  requires  8 
pounds  of  oxj^gen ; hence  3.46  pounds  of  hydrogen 
will  take  27.68  pounds  of  oxygen  for  its  saturation. 

If  then  we  add  242.66  pounds  of  oxygen  for  its 
saturation,  270.34  pounds  of  oxygen  are  required  for 
the  combustion  of  100  pounds  of  coal. 

A given  weight  of  air  contains  nearly  23.32  per 
cent,  of  oxygen ; hence  to  obtain  270.34  pounds  of 
oxygen,  we  must  have  about  four  times  that  quan- 
tity of  atmospheric  air,  or,  more  accurately,  1159.5 
pounds  of  air  for  the  combustion  of  100  pounds  of 
coal. 

A cubic  foot  of  air  at  ordinary  temperatures  weighs 
about  .076  pounds;  so  that  100  pounds  of  coal  re- 
quire 15,254  cubic  feet  of  air,  or  1 pound  of  coal 
requires  about  152  cubic  feet  of  air,  supposing  every 
atom  of  the  oxygen  to  enter  into  combination. 


68 


hahd-book:  of  the  locomotive. 


But  as  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  air  passes 
unconsumed  through  the  fire,  an  allowance  of  240 
cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  pound  of  coal  will  be  a 
small  enough  allowance  to  answer  the  requirements 
of  practice,  and  in  some  cases  as  much  as  320  cubic 
feet  will  be  required. 

The  Evaporative  Efficiency  of  a Pound  of  Anthra- 
cite Coal.  — The  evaporative  efiScacy  of  a pound  of 
ckrbon  has  been  found,  experimentally,  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  that  necessary  to  raise  14,000  pounds  of  water 
through  1 degree,  or  14  pounds  of  water  through  1000 
degrees,  supposing  the  whole  heat  generated  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  water. 

Now,  if  the  water  be  raised  into  steam  from  a tem- 
perature of  60°,  then  1118.9°  of  heat  will  have  to  be 
imparted  to  it  to  convert  it  into  steam  of  15  pounds 
pressure  per  square  inch;  14,000  divided  by  1118.9 
equals  12.5  pounds  will  be  the  number  of  pounds 
of  water,  therefore,  which  a pound  of  carbon  can  raise 
into  steam  of  15  pounds  pressure  from  a temperature 
of  60°.  This,  however,  is  a considerably  larger  re- 
sult than  can  be  expected  in  practice. 

Bituminous  Coal.  — Under  this  class  we  range  all 
that  mineral  coal  which  forms  coke,  that  is,  it  swells 
upon  being  exposed  to  heat,  burns  with  a bright  flame, 
blazes,  and  after  the  flame  disappears  there  remains 
a spongy,  porous  mass — coke — which  burns  without 
flame  like  charcoal. 

In  its  composition  we  find  chiefly  carbon,  oxygen. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


69 


hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  ashes,  with  a little 
water,  which  has  been  absorbed. 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  compo- 
sition of  various  sorts  of  mineral  fuel : 


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen 

and 

Nitrogen. 

Ashes. 

Turf 

58.09 

5.93  : 

31.37 

4.61 

Brown  Coal 

71.71 

4.85 

21.67 

1.77 

Hard  Bituminous  CoaL 

82.92 

6.49 

10.86 

0,13 

Cannel  Coal 

83.75 

5.66 

8.04 

2.55 

Cooking  or  Baking  Coal 

87.95  - 

5.24 

5.41 

1.40 

Anthracite — 

91.98 

3.92 

3.16 

0.94 

An  essential  condition  in  forming  coke  is  that  the 
coal,  on  being  heated,  swells  and  changes  into  irreg- 
ular spongy  masses,  which  adhere  intimately  together. 
This  operation  is  designed  to  expel  sulphur  and  hy- 
drogen, and  form  a coal  which  is  not  altered  by  heat. 
The  sulphur  cannot  be  entirely  separated  from  coke, 
or  from  carbon,  no  matter  how  high  the  heat  may  be ; 
neither  can  all  the  hydrogen  be  removed  from  carbon 
by  simply  heating  the  compound.  If  oxygen  is 
admitted  to  these  combinations,  both  sulphur  and 
hydrogen  may  be  almost  entirely  expelled,  that  is, 
provided  the  oxygen  is  not  introduced  under  too 
high  or  too  low  a heat. 

The  most  important  point,  and  one  which  has  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  value  of  coal,  is  the  quantity 
of  heat  which  it  can  evolve  in  combustion. 


70 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


If  we  assume  that  the  quantity  of  ashes  is  equal  in 
the  four  substances  mentioned  below,  that  is,  5 per 
cent,  in  each,  and  suppose  further  that  pine  charcoal 
furnishes  100  parts  of  heat,  the  following  table  shows 
the  quantity  which  must  be  liberated  in  their  per- 
fect combustion. 


Kind  of  Coal. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Water. 

Quality 
oi  Heat. 

Brown  Coal 

69 

3 

23 

78 

Cooking  Coal 

75 

4 

16 

87 

u u 

78 

4 

13 

90 

Anthracite  Coal 

85 

3 

7 

94 

Pure  Carbon 

100 

... 

... 

100 

Bituminous  coal,  like  all  other  fuel,  is  a compound 
substance,  which  may  be  decomposed  by  heat  into 
several  distinct  elements  — generally  five  or  six  at 
least.  So  far  as  relates  to  combustion,  we  are  con- 
cerned principally  with  but  two  of  these,  viz.,  solid 
carbon,  represented  by  coke,  and  hydrogen,  generally 
known  under  the  indefinite  term  of  “gas.’’  These 
two  elements  contain  principally  the  full  heating 
qualities  of  the  coal.  The  carbon,  so  long  as  it  re- 
mains as  such,  is  always  solid  and  visible. 

The  hydrogen,  when  driven  from  the  coal  by  heat, 
carries  with  it  a portion  of  carbon,  the  gaseous  com- 
pound being  known  as  carburetted  hydrogen. 

A ton  of  2,000  pounds  of  average  bituminous  coal 
contains,  say  1,600  pounds,  or  80  per  cent,  of  carbon. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


71 


100  pounds,  or  5 per  cent,  of  hydrogen,  and  300 
pounds,  or  15  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
sand  and  ashes. 

But  if  this  coal  be  coked,  the  100  pounds  of  hy- 
drogen driven  off  by  heat  will  carry  about  300  pounds 
of  carbon  in  combination  with  it,  making  400  pounds, 
or  nearly  10,000  cubic  feet  of  carburetted  hydrogen 
gas. 

But  still  1,300  pounds  of  carbon  (65  per  cent,  of 
the  original  coal)  will  be  left,  and,  with  the  earthy 
matter,  ashes,  sulphur,  etc.,  retained  with  it,  the  coke 
will  weigh  but  about  1,850  or  1,400  pounds,  — 67i 
to  70  per  cent,  of  the  original  coal. 

The  only  proportions  in  which  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen combine  with  air  in  combustion  are  these : 

For  every  pound  of  carbon  (pure  coke).  Hi  pounds 
(equal  to  152  cubic  feet)  of  air  are  required  to  com- 
bine intimately  with  it. 

For  every  pound  of  hydrogen,  35  pounds  (equal  to 
457  cubic  feet)  of  air  are  required  to  be  similarly 
combined. 

Thus  for  every  pound  of  carburetted  hydrogen  gas, 
being  one-fourth  pound  of  hydrogen  and  three-fourths 
of  a pound  of  carbon,  17f  pounds  (equal  to  228  cubic 
feet)  of  air  are  required  to  be  combiued  with  it. 

These  are  the  elements  and  their  combining  pro- 
portions that  have  to  be  dealt  with  in  a locomotive 
FURNACE.  For  every  2,000  pounds  of  coal  burned,  the 
400  pounds  of  carburetted  hydrogen — the  ‘‘gas”  — 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


require  91,200  cubic  feet  of  atmospheric  air  at  ordi- 
nary temperature,  and  the  1,300  pounds  of  solid  car- 
bon require  197,600  cubic  feet  of  air.  Practically,  the 
“ gas  ” from  a ton  of  ordinary  bituminous  coal  re- 
quires 100,000  cubic  feet  of  air  for  its  combustion, 
while  the  remaining  coke  requires  200,000  feet.  Thus 
the  gaseous  matter  of  the  coal  requires  one-half  as 
much  air  as  is  taken  up  by  the  solid  coke. 

The  heating  value  of  any  combustible  is  exactly 
proportional  to  the  quantity  of  air  with  which  it  will 
combine  in  combustion.  Hence  hydrogen,  which 
combines  with  three  times  the  quantity  of  air 
(oxygen)  which  would  be  taken  up  by  carbon,  has, 
for  equal  weights,  three  times  the  heating  value. 
Thus,  the  100  pounds  of  pure  hydrogen  in  a ton  of 
coal  have  the  same  heating  efficiency  as  that  due  to 
300  pounds  of  the  remaining  carbon  or  pure  coke. 

It  will  now  be  seen  that  complete  combustion  can- 
not produce  smoke,  since  smoke  contains  a quantity 
of  unburnt  matter,  and  is  in  itself  a proof  of  in- 
complete combustion.  The  products  of  perfect  com- 
bustion are  invisible  — being  for  carbon  and  oxygen, 
carbonic  acid  ; and  for  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  invisi- 
ble steam,  which  condenses  into  water. 

The  admission  of  heated  air  to  furnaces  or  fire- 
boxes of  locomotives  can  be  of  no  practical  value, 
since  for  every  461°  Fah.  of  heat  added,  its  original 
bulk  or  volume  is  doubled ; trebled  at  922°  Fah. ; 
so  that  at  2305°  Fah.  the  heated  air  in  the  interior 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


73 


of  the  furnace  has  six  times  its  original  volume.  This 
makes  it  more  unmanageable,  and  as  its  contained 
oxygen  remains  the  same  in  weight,  its  mixture  with 
the  gas  becomes  more  difficult,  while,  when  mixed, 
it  can  do  only  the  same  work  as  before. 

Waste  of  Unbupnt  Fuel. — This  generally  arises 
from  the  brittleness  of  the  fuel,  combined  with  want 
of  care  on  the  part  of  the  fireman,  by  which  cause 
the  fuel  is  made  to  fall  into  small  pieces,  which  es- 
cape between  the  grate-bars  into  the  ash-pit,  and  are 
lost. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  estimate  the  loss  of  fuel 
occasioned  by  carelessness  and  bad  firing,  but  the 
amount  which  is  unavoidable,  even  with  care  and 
good  firing,  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  to 
range  from  2}  to  3 per  cent,  of  the  fuel  consumed. 

Spontaneous  Combustion.  — A great  deal  has 
been  said  and  written  on  the  subject  of  spontaneous 
combustion,  and  the  danger  likely  to  result  from 
allowing  steam-pipes  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
wood-work  in  buildings ; but  as  the  temperature  of 
superheated  steam  only  ranges  from  800°  to  500° 
Fah.,  it  is  only  able  to  set  fire  to  such  substances  as 
sulphur,  gun-cotton,  and  nitro-glycerine.  It  is,  per- 
haps, able  to  fire  gunpowder,  but  certainly  cannot 
ignite  wood. 

It  is  only  when  dried  wood,  sawdust,  or  rags  have 
been  saturated  by  drying  oil  or  other  equivalents, 
that  the  temperature  may  be  indefinitely  raised,  and 


74 


HAN^D-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


finally  reach  400°  or  500°  Fah.,  or  until  the  point 
of  inflammability  is  attained.  This  is  caused  by  the 
oxidation  of  the  oil  and  the  agency  of  the  air. 

Fire. — Fire  is  one  of  the  elements  which  has  always 
attracted  a great  deal  of  attention  from  natural 
philosophers,  and  many  theories  have  been  advanced 
to  account  for  all  the  remarkable  phenomena  which 
accompany  heat.  Late  investigations,  however,  have 
proved  that  combustion  is  the  result  of  chemical 
changes  in  bodies. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION  OF  VARIOUS  FUELS. 


SORT  OF  FUEL. 

Equivalent 
in  pure 
carbon. 

Evaporative 
power  in  lbs. 
water  from 
212°  Fah. 

Total  heat  of 
combustion 
in  lbs.  water 
heated  1° 
Fah. 

Charcoal  

0.93 

14.00 

13500 

Charred  peat 

0.80 

12.00 

11600 

Coke — good 

0.94 

14.00 

13620 

“ mean  

0.88 

13.20 

12760 

bad 

0.82 

12.30 

11890 

COAL. 

Anthracite 

1.05 

15.75 

15225 

Hard  bituminous — hardest. 

1.06 

15.90 

15370 

‘‘  softest.. 

0.95 

14.25 

13775 

Cooking  coal 

1.07 

16.00 

15837 

Canning  coal 

1.04 

15.60 

15080 

Long  flaming  splint  coal.... 

0.91 

13.65 

13195 

Lignite 

0.81 

12.15 

11745 

PEAT. 

Perfectly  air-dry 

0.66 

10.00 

9660 

Containing  25  per  ct.  water 

7.25 

7000 

WOOD. 

Perfectly  air-dry 

0.50 

7.50 

7245 

Containing  20  per  ct.  water 

5.80 

5600 

filAOT-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


J^- 


75 


TABLE 

or  TEMPERATURES  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  IGNITION  OP 
DIFFERENT  COMBUSTIBLE  SUBSTANCES. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Tempera- 
ture of 
Ignition. 

RKM.4BKS. 

Phosphorus 

140° 

Melts  at  112°. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  vapor 

300° 

Melts  at  130°. 

Fulrainatins:  Powder 

374° 

Used  in  percussion  caps. 

Fulminate  of  Mercury 

392° 

According  to  Legue  and 

Equal  ])arts  of  chlorate  of 
potash  and  sulphur 

395° 

Champion. 

Sulphur  

400° 

Melts,  239°  ; boils,  570°. 
According  to  Legue  and 

Gun-cotton 

428° 

Nitro-glvcerine 

494° 

Champion. 

u u tt 

Hi  He -powder 

550° 

iC  it 

Gunpowder,  coarse 

563° 

il  it  tl 

Picrate  of  mercury,  lead 
or  iron 

565° 

a it  a 

Picrate  powder  for  torpe- 
does  

570° 

it  tt  it 

Picrate  powder  for  muskets 

576° 

Charcoal,  the  most  inflam- 

tt tt  tt 

mable  willow  used  for 
gunpowder 

580° 

According  to  Pelouse  and 

Charcoal  made  by  distill- 
ing wood  at  500° 

660° 

Fremy. 

tt  tt  tt 

Charcoal  made  at  600°.... 

700° 

tt  tt  tt 

Picrate  powder  for  cannon 

716° 

Very  dry  wood,  pine 

800° 

oak 

900° 

Charcoal  made  at  800°.... 

900° 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  table  that  the  most 
combustible  substances  generally  considered  very 
dangerous,  will  only  ignite  by  heat  alone  at  a high 
temperature,  so  that  for  their  prompt  ignition  it  re- 
quires the  actual  contact  of  a spark. 


76 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


GASES. 

All  substances,  whether  animal,  vegetable,  or  min- 
eral, consisting  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
when  exposed  to  a red  heat,  produce  various  inflam- 
mable elastic  fluids,  capable  of  furnishing  artificial 
light.  We  perceive  the  evolution  of  this  elastic  fluid 
during  the  combustion  of  coal  in  a common  fire. 

Bituminous  coal,  when  heated  to  a certain  degree, 
swells  and  kindles  and  frequently  emits  remarkably 
bright  streams  of  flame,  and  after  a certain  period 
these  appearances  cease,  and  the  coal  glows  with  a 
red  light. 

The  flame  produced  from  coal,  oil,  wax,  tallow,  or 
other  bodies  which  are  composed  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, proceeds  from  the  production  of  carburetted 
hydrogen  gas,  evolved  from  the  combustible  body 
when  in  an  ignited  state. 

If  coal,  instead  of  being  burnt  in  the  way  now  stated, 
is  submitted  to  a temperature  of  ignition  in  close 
vessels,  all  its  immediate  constituent  parts  may  be 
collected.  The  bituminous  part  is  distilled  over  in 
the  form  of  coal-tar,  etc.,  and  a large  quantity  of  an 
aqueous  fluid  is  disengaged  at  the  same  time,  mixed 
with  a portion  of  essential  oil  and  various  ammoni- 
acal  salts. 

A large  quantity  of  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  carbonic  acid,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  also 
make  their  appearance,  together  with  small  quantities 


UA.ND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


77 


of  cyanogen,  nitrogen,  and  free  hydrogen ; and  the 
fixed  base  of  the  coal  alone  remains  behind  in  the 
distillatory  apparatus,  in  the  form  of  a carbonaceous 
substance  called  coke.  An  analysis  of  the  coal  is 
thus  effected  by  the  process  of  destructive  distillation. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  of  all  known 
gases,  its  specific  gravity  being  only  0.06896,  air 
being  1.  This  gas  is  colorless,  and  when  perfectly 
pure,  inodorous.  It  has  a powerful  afilnity  for  oxy- 
gen, and  is  therefore  emii^mtly  combustible.  Intense 
heat  is  developed  by  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  in 
oxygen  gas,  and  but  little  light. 

Carbon.  — Carbon  is  well  known  under  the  form 
of  coke,  charcoal,  lamp-black,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the 
principal  constituents  of  all  varieties  of  coal,  and  is 
the  basis  of  the  illuminating  gases.  Carbonic  oxide 
is  a colorless  and  inodorous  gas,  rather  lighter  than 
common  air,  having  a specific  gravity  of  0.9727,  is 
sparingly  absorbed  by  water,  and  does  not  precipitate 
lime-water.  It  is  inflammable,  burning  with  a blue 
flame ; the  product  of  its  combustion  is  carbonic  acid. 

Carbon  unites  with  hydrogen  in  many  proportions, 
and  many  of  these  compounds  are  produced  during 
the  distillation  of  coal ; but  the  only  two  of  importance 
are  carburetted  hydrogen  and  olefiant  gas. 

Carburetted  Hydrogen. — Carburetted  hydrogen 
is  abundantly  formed  in  nature,  in  stagnant  pools, 
ditches,  etc.,  wherever  vegetables  are  undergoing  the 
process  of  putrefaction ; it  also  forms  the  greater  part 


78 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


of  the  gas  obtained  from  coal.  Carburetted  hydro- 
gen consists  of  iOO  volumes  of  vapor  of  carbon,  and 
200  of  hydrogen.  It  is  colorless  and  almost  inodor- 
ous ; it  is  not  dissolved  to  any  extent  by  water,  and 
is  much  lighter  than  atmospheric  air,  its  density 
being  0.5527.  It  is  very  inflammable,  burning  with 

• a strong  yellow  flame.  The  products  of  its  combus- 
tion are  carbonic  acid  and  water. 

Carburetted  hydrogen,  or  coal-gas,  when  freed  from 
the  obnoxious  foreign  gases,  may  be  propelled  in 
streams  out  of  small  apertures,  which,  when  lighted, 

* form  jets  of  flame,  which  are  called  gas-lights. 

Olefiant  Gas.  — Olefiant  gas  is  a product  of  the 
distillation  of  oil,  resin,  and  also  of  coal,  when  the 
process  is  well  conducted.  It  is  colorless,  tasteless, 
and  without  smell  when  pure.  Water  dissolves  about 
one-eighth  of  its  bulk  of  this  gas.  It  is  formed  of 
two  volumes  of  hydrogen,  and  two  of  the  vapor  of 
carbon  condensed  into  one  volume. 

Olefiant  gas  burns  with  an  intense  white  light,  and 
requires  a larger  portion  of  oxygen  for  its  combustion, 
one  volume  of  the  gas  requiring  not  less  than  three 
volumes  of  pure  oxygen,  or  fifteen  volumes  of  atmos- 
pheric air  for  decomposition.  The  products  of  the 
combustion  are  water  and  carbonic  acid. 

Nitrogen.  — Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  constituents  of 
coal.  It  has  the  properties  of  extinguishing  burning 
bodies,  and  is  not  absorbed  by  water;  its  specific 
gravity  is  0.9760,  being  lighter  than  common  air,  of 
which  it  forms  a constituent  part. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


79 


Liquefaction  of  Gases.  — Many  of  the  gases  have 
already  been  brought  into  the  liquid  state  by  the 
conjoint  agency  of  cold  and  compression,  and  all  of 
them  are  probably  susceptible  of  a similar  reduction 
by  the  use  of  means  sufficiently  powerful  for  the  re- 
quired end. 

They  must  consequently  be  regarded  as  the  super- 
heated steams  or  vapors  of  the  liquids  into  which 
they  are  compressed. 

Compression  and  Dilatation  of  Gases.  — When  a 
gas  or  vapor  is  compressed  into  half  its  original  bulk, 
its  pressure  is  double  ; when  compressed  into  a third 
of  its  original  bulk,  its  pressure  is  treble ; when  com- 
pressed into  a fourth  of  its  original  bulk,  its  pressure 
is  quadrupled  ; and  generally  the  pressure  varies  in- 
versely as  the  bulk  into  which  the  gas  is  compressed. 

So  in  like  manner  if  the  volume  be  doubled,  the 
pressure  is  made  one-half  of  what  it  was  before  — 
the  pressure  being  in  every  case  reckoned  from  0,  or 
from  a perfect  vacuum. 

Thus,  if  we  take  the  average  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere at  14.7  pounds  on  the  square  inch,  a cubic  foot 
of  air,  if  suffered  to  expand  into  twice  its  bulk  by 
being  pla(*,ed  in  a vacuum  measuring  two  cubic  feet, 
will  have  a pressure  of  7.35  pounds  above  a perfect 
vacuum,  and  also  of  7.35  pounds  below  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure ; whereas,  if  the  cubic  foot  be  com- 
pressed into  a space  of  half  a cubic  foot,  the  pressure 
will  become  29.4  pounds  above  a perfect  vacuum, 
and  14.7  pounds  above  the  atmospheric  pressure. 


80 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


The  specific  gravity  of  any  one  gas  to  that  of  an- 
other will  not  exactly  conform  to  the  same  ratio  under 
different  degrees  of  heat  and  other  pressures  of  the 
atmosphere. 

STEAM. 

The  elastic  fluid  into  which  water  is  converted  by 
the  continued  application  of  heat. 

All  liquids  whatever,  when  exposed  to  sufficiently 
high  temperature,  are  converted  into  vapor. 

The  mechanical  properties  of  vapor  are  similar 
to  those  of  gases  in  general.  The  property  which  is 
most  important  to  be  considered,  in  the  case  of 
steam,  is  the  elastic  pressure.  When  a vapor  or  gas 
is  contained  in  a close  vessel,  the  inner  surface  of 
the  vessel  will  sustain  a pressure  arising  from  the 
elasticity  of  the  fluid. 

This  pressure  is  produced  by  the  mutual  repulsion 
of  the  particles,  which  gives  them  a tendency  to  fly 
asunder,  and  causes  the  mass  of  the  fluid  to  exert  a 
force  tending  to  burst  any  vessel  within  which  it  is 
confined.  This  pressure  is  uniformly  diffused  over 
every  part  of  the  surface  of  the  vessel  in  which  such 
a fluid  is  contained ; it  is  to  this  quality  that  all  the 
mechanical  power  of  steam  is  due. 

Steam  might  be  said  to  be  the  result  of  a combi- 
nation of  water  with  a certain  amount  of  heat,  and 
the  expansive  force  of  steam  arises  from  the  absence 
of  cohesion  between  and  among  the  particles  of  water. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


81 


Heat  universally  expands  all  matter  within  its  in- 
fluence, whether  solid  or  fluid.  But  in  a solid  body 
it  has  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  to  overcome,  and 
this  so  circumscribes  its  effect  that  in  cast-iron,  for 
instance,  a rate  of  temperature  above  the  freezing- 
point  sufficient  to  melt  it  causes  an  extension  of  only 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  a foot.  With  water, 
however,  a temperature  of  212°,  or  180°  above  the 
freezing-point  (and  which  is  far  from  a red  heat),  con- 
verts it  into  steam  of  1,700  times  its  original  bulk  or 
volume. 

Steam  cannot  mix  with  air  while  its  pressure  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  this  property, 
with  that  which  makes  the  condition  of  a body  de- 
pendent on  its  temperature,  that  explains  the  con- 
densing property  of  steam. 

In  a cylinder  once  filled  with  steam  of  a pressure  of  15 
pounds  or  more  to  the  square  inch,  all  air  is  excluded. 

Now,  as  the  existence  of  the  steam  depends  on  its 
temperature,  by  abstracting  that  temperature  (which 
may  be  done  by  immersing  the  cylinder  in  cold 
water  or  cold  air)  the  contained  steam  assumes  the 
state  due  to  the  reduced  temperature,  and  this  state 
will  be  water. 

But  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  properties  of 
steam  is  its  latent  or  concealed  heat.  The  latent 
heat  of  steam,  though  showing  no  effect  on  the  ther- 
mometer, may  be  as  easily  known  as  the  sensible  or 
perceivable  heat. 

F 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


To  show  this  property  of  steam  by  experiment, 
place  an  indefinite  amount  of  water  in  a closed  ves- 
sel, and  let  a pipe,  proceeding  from  its  upper  part, 
communicate  with  another  vessel,  which  should  be 
open,  and,  for  convenience  of  illustration,  shall  con- 
tain just  5.37  pounds  of  water  at  32°,  or  just  freezing. 
The  pipe  from  the  closed  vessel  must  reach  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  open  one.  By  boiling  the  water 
contained  in  the  first  vessel  until  steam  enough  has 
passed  through  the  pipe  to  raise  the  water  in  the  open 
vessel  to  the  boiling-point  (212°  Fah.),we  shall  find 
the  weight  of  the  water  contained  by  the  latter  to  be 
pounds.  Now,  this  addition  of  one  pound  to  its 
weight  has  resulted  solely  from  the  admission  of 
steam  to  it,  and  this  pound  of  steam,  therefore,  re- 
taining its  own  temperature  of  212°,  has  raised  5.37 
pounds  of  water  180°,  or  an  equivalent  to  966.6°,  and 
including  its  own  temperature,  we  have  1178.6°^ 
which  it  must  have  possessed  at  first. 

The  sum  of  the  latent  and  sensible  heat  of  steam 
is  in  all  cases  nearly  constant,  and  does  not  vary 
much  from  1200°. 

The  elasticity  of  steam  increases  with  an  increase 
in  the  temperature  applied,  but  not  in  the  same 
ratio.  If  steam  is  generated  from  water  at  a tempera- 
ture which  gives  it  the  same  pressure  as  the  atmos- 
phere, an  additional  temperature  of  38°  will  give  it 
the  pressure  of  two  atmospheres ; a still  further  addi- 
tion of  42°  gives  it  the  tension  of  four  atmospheres  • 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


83 


and  with  each  successive  addition  of  temperature  of 
between  40^^  and  50°  the  pressure  becomes  doubled. 

An  established  relation  must  exist  between  the 
temperature  and  elasticity  of  steam  ; in  other  words, 
water  at  212°  Fah.  must  be  under  the  pressure  of 
the  steam  naturally  resulting  from  that  temperature, 
and  so  at  any  other  temperature. 

If  this  natural  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
be  removed  without  a corresponding  reduction  in  the 
temperature,  a violent  ebullition  of  the  water  is  the 
immediate  result. 

Another  result  attending  formation  of  steam  is, 
that  when  an  engine  is  in  operation  and  working  off 
a proper  supply  of  steam,  the  water  level  in  the 
boiler  artificially  rises,  and  shows  by  the  gauge- cocks 
a supply  greater  than  that  which  really  exists. 

As  the  pressure  of  steam  is  increased  the  sensible 
heat  is  augmented,  and  the  latent  heat  undergoes  a 
corresponding  diminution,  and  vice  versa.  The  sum 
of  the  sensible  and  latent  heat  is,  in  fact,  a constant 
quantity ; the  one  being  always  increased  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  other. 

It  has  been  shown  that  in  converting  water  at  82° 
of  temperature,  and  under  a pressure  of  15  pounds 
per  square  inch,  it  was  necessary  first  to  give  it  180° 
additional  sensible  heat,  and  afterwards  966.6°  of  la- 
tent heat,  the  total  heat  imparted  to  it  being  1146.6°. 
Such,  then,  is  the  actual  quantity  of  heat  which 
must  be  imparted  to  ice-cold  water  to  convert  it  into 


84 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


steam.  The  actual  temperature  to  which  water 
would  be  raised  by  the  heat  necessary  to  evaporate 
it,  if  its  evaporation  could  be  prevented  by  con- 
fining it  in  a close  vessel,  will  be  found  by  adding 
32°  to  1146.6°. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  stated  that  the  heat  necessary 
for  the  evaporation  of  ice-cold  water  is  as  much  as 
would  raise  it  to  the  temperature  of  1178.6°,  if  its 
evaporation  were  prevented. 

If  tne  temperature  of  red-hot  iron  be,  as  it  is  sup- 
posed, 800°  or  900°,  and  that  all  bodies  become  in- 
candescent at  the  same  temperature,  it  follows  that 
to  evaporate  water  it  is  necessary  to  impart  to  it 
400°  more  heat  than  would  be  suflicient  to  render  it 
red-hot,  if  its  evaporation  were  prevented. 

It  has  been  asserted,  in  some  scientific  works,  that 
by  mere  mechanical  compression,  steam  will  be  con- 
verted into  water.  This  is,  however,  an  error,  since 
steam,  in  whatever  state  it  may  exist,  must  possess 
at  least  212°  of  heat ; and  as  this  quantity  of  heat  is 
suflicient  to  maintain  it  in  the  vaporous  form  under 
whatever  pressure  it  may  be  placed,  it  is  clear  that 
no  compression  or  increase  of  pressure  can  diminish 
the  actual  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  the  steam, 
and  it  cannot,  therefore,  convert  any  portion  of  the 
steam  into  power. 

Steam,  by  mechanical  pressure,  if  forced  into  a 
diminished  volume,  will  undergo  an  augmentation 
both  of  temperature  and  pressure,  the  increase  of 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


85 


temperature  being  greater  than  tbe  diminution  of 
volume;  in  fact,  any  change  of  volume  which  it 
undergoes  will  be  attended  with  the  change  of 
temperature  and  pressure  indicated  in  the  table  on 
pages  91,  92. 

The  steam,  after  its  volume  has  been  changed, 
will  assume  exactly  the  pressure  and  temperature 
which  it  would  have  in  the  same  volume  if  it  were 
immediately  evolved  from  water. 

Now,  let  us  suppose  a cubic  inch  of  water  con- 
verted into  steam  under  a pressure  of  15  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  the  temperature  of  212°. 
Then  let  its  volume  be  reduced  by  compression  in 
the  proportion  of  1700  to  930.  When  so  reduced, 
its  temperature  will  be  found  to  have  risen  from  15 
pounds  per  square  inch  to  29  i pounds  per  square 
inch ; but  this  is  exactly  the  state  as  to  pressure,  tem- 
perature, and  density  the  steam  would  be  in  if  it  were 
immediately  raised  from  water  under  the  pressure  of 
29 i pounds  per  square  inch.  It  appears,  therefore, 
that  in  whatever  manner,  after  evaporation,  the  den- 
sity of  steam  be  changed,  whether  by  expansion  or 
contraction,  it  will  still  remain  the  same  as  if  it  were 
immediately  raised  from  water  in  its  actual  state. 

The  circumstance  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
erroneous  notion  that  mere  mechanical  compression 
will  produce  a condensation  of  steam,  is  that  the 
vessel  in  which  steam  is  contained  must  necessarily 
have  the  same  temperature  as  the  steam  itself. 

8 


86 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Water  while  passing  into  steam  suffers  a great 
enlargement  of  volume;  steam,  on  the  other,  hand,  in 
being  converted  into  water,  undergoes  a correspond- 
ing diminution  of  volume.  It  has  been  seen  that  a 
cubic  inch  of  water,  evaporated  at  the  temperature 
of  212"^,  swells  into  1700  cubic  inches  of  steam.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  if  a closed  vessel,  containing 
1700  cubic  inches  of  such  steam,  be  exposed  to  cold 
sufBcient  to  take  from  the  steam  all  its  latent  heat, 
the  steam  will  be  reconverted  into  water,  and  will 
shrink  into  its  original  dimensions,  and  will  leave 
the  remainder  of  the  vessel  a vacuum. 

This  property  of  steam  has  supplied  the  means,  in 
practical  mechanics,  of  obtaining  that  amount  of 
mechanical  power  which  the  properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere confer  upon  a vacuum. 

The  temperature  and  pressure  of  steam  produced 
by  immediate  evaporation,  when  it  has  received  no 
heat,  save  that  which  it  takes  from  the  water,  have  a 
fixed  relation  one  to  the  other. 

If  this  relation  was  known  and  expressed  by  a 
aathematical  formula,  the  temperature  might  always 
be  inferred  from  the  pressure,  or  viee  versa. 

But  physical  science  has  not  yet  supplied  any 
principle  by  which  such  a formula  can  be  deduced 
from  any  known  properties  of  liquids. 

The  same  difiiculty  which  attends  the  establish- 
ment of  a general  formula  expressing  the  relation 
between  the  temperatures  and  pressures  of  steam, 


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87 


also  attends  the  determination  of  one  expressing  the 
relation  between  tlie  pressure  and  the  augmented 
volume  into  which  the  water  expands  by  evapora- 
tion. 

In  the  preceding  observations,  steam  has  been  con- 
sidered as  receiving  no  heat  except  that  which  it 
takes  from  the  water  during  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion ; the  amount  of  which,  as  has  been  shown,  is 
1146.6°  more  than  the  heat  contained  in  ice-cold  water. 
But  steam,  after  having  been  formed  from  water  by 
evaporation,  may,  like  all  other  material  substances, 
receive  an  accession  of  heat  from  any  external  source, 
and  its  temperature  may  thereby  be  elevated. 

If  the  steam  to  which  such  additional  heat  is  im- 
parted be  so  confined  as  to  be  incapable  of  enlarging 
its  dimensions,  the  efiect  produced  upon  it  by  the  in- 
crease of  temperature  will  be  an  increase  of  pressure.  ^ 

But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  be  confined  under  a 
given  pressure,  with  power  to  enlarge  its  volume, 
subject  to  the  preservation  of  that  pressure,  as  would 
be  the  case  if  it  were  contained  in  a cylinder  under 
a movable  piston  loaded  with  a given  pressure,  then 
the  efiect  of  the  augmented  temperature  will  be,  not 
an  increase  of  pressure,  but  an  increase  of  volume ; 
and  the  increase  of  volume  in  this  latter  case  will  be 
in  exactly  the  same  proportion  as  the  increase  of 
pressure  in  the  former  case. 

These  efiects  of  elevated  temperature  are  common, 
not  only  to  the  vapors  of  all  liquids,  but  also  to  all 


88 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


permanent  gases ; but,  what  is  much  more  remark- 
able, the  numerical  amount  of  the  augmentation  of 
pressure  or  volume  produced  by  a given  increase  of 
temperature  is  the  same  for  all  vapors  and  gases. 
If  the  pressure  which  any  gas  or  vapor  would  have, 
were  it  reduced  to  the  temperature  of  melting  ice,  be 
expressed  by  100,000,  the  pressure  which  it  will  re- 
ceive for  every  degree  of  temperature  by  which  it  is 
raised  will  be  expressed  by  208  3 , or  what  amounts  to 
the  same,  the  additional  pressure  produced  by  each 
degree  of  temperature  will  be  the  480th  part  of  its 
pressure  at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice. 

Steam  which  thus  receives  additional  heat  after  its 
separation  from  the  water  from  which  it  is  evolved 
has  been  called  superheated  steam,  to  distinguish  it 
from  common  steam,  which  is  that  usually  employed 
in  steam  engines. 

Steam  of  atmospheric  pressure  occupies  1642  times 
the  volume  of  the  water  from  which  it  is  raised,  and 
as  a cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.4  pounds,  a cubic 
foot  of  steam  of  atmospheric  pressure  weighs  about 
.038  pound.  In  order  to  exert  a pressure  by  its 
mere  dead  weight  of  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch, 
such  steam  of  uniform  density  would  have  to  stand 
at  a height  of  10  J miles. 

Superheated  steam  admits  of  losing  a part  of  its 
heat  without  suffering  partial  condensation ; but 
common  steam  is  always  partially  condensed,  if  any 
porti(fn  of  heat  be  withdrawn  from  it. 


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89 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  VELOCITY  WITH  WHICH  STEAM  OF  DIFFEKENT 
PRESSURES  WILL  FLOW  INTO  THE  ATMOSPHERE  OR  INTO 
STEAM  OF  LOWER  PRESSURE. 


Pressure 
above  the 
atmosphere. 

Velocity 
of  escape 
per  second. 

Pressure 
above  the 
atmosphere. 

Velocity 
of  escape 
per  second. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

1 

540 

50 

1,736 

2 

698 

60 

1,777 

3 

814 

70 

1,810 

4 

905 

80 

1,835 

5 

981 

90 

1,857 

10 

1,232 

100 

1,875 

20 

1,476 

110 

1,889 

30 

1,601 

120 

1,900 

40 

1,681 

130 

1,909 

One  cubic  foot  of  steam  at  a pressure  of  15  pounds 
per  square  inch  weighs  .0367  pound. 

Five  cubic  feet  of  steam  at  a pressure  of  75  pounds 
per  square  inch  weighs  1 pound. 

Seventy-five  cubic  feet  of  steam  at  a pressure  of 
140  pounds  per  square  inch  weighs  26  pounds. 


Rule  for  finding  the  Superficial  Feet  of  Steam-pipe 
required  to  Heat  any  Building  ivith  Steam, 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam-pipe  to  6 superficial 
feet  of  glass  in  the  windows,  or  1 superficial  foot  of 
steam-pipe  for  every  100  square  feet  of  wall,  roof  or 
ceiling,  or  1 square  foot  of  steam-pipe  to  80  cubic  feet 
8* 


90 


HA-ND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


of  space ; 1 cubic  foot  of  boiler  is  required  for  every 
1,500  cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  warmed. 

The  following  table  shows  that  the  saving  of  fuel 
is  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  pressure  — the  ad- 
vantage of  generating  and  using  high-pressure  steam 
is  thereby  made  apparent.  The  table  also  shows 
that  the  last  10  pounds  of  additional  pressure  only 
requires  four  degrees  of  heat  to  raise  it ; whereas  the 
first  10  pounds  of  pressure  above  the  atmosphere  re- 
quires 29  additional  degrees  of  heat  to  raise  it  a dif- 
ference of  25  degrees. 

Hence  a small  accession  of  heat  at  a high  tempera- 
ture produces  an  increase  of  elastic  force;  and  a 
small  abstraction  of  heat  reduces  its  bulk,  by  the 
application  of  cold  in  the  ratio  of  its  density;  prov- 
ing the  advantage  of  clothing  cylinders,  steam-pipes, 
boilers,  etc.,  with  a non-conductor  of  heat  or  cold  — 
a sure  saving  of  fuel,  where  adopted,  and  more  par- 
ticularly required  where  high-pressure  steam  is 
used. 

Steam,  at  any  given  pressure,  always  stands  at  a 
certain  temperature,  which  is  termed  the  tempera- 
ture due  to  the  pressure.”  Steam  follows  very  nearly 
the  same  law  that  all  other  gaseous  bodies  are  sub- 
ject to  in  acquiring  additional  degrees  of  heat.  The 
law  is,  briefly,  as  follows : That  all  gaseous  bodies 
expand  equally  for  equal  additions  of  temperature ; 
and  that  the  progressive  rate  of  expansion  is  equal 
for  equal  increments  of  temj^eratui  e. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


91 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  STEAM  AT  DIFFERENT  PRES- 
SURES FROM  1 POUND  PER  SQUARE  INCH  TO  240  POUNDS, 
AND  THE  QUANTITY  OF  STEAM  PRODUCED  FROM  A CUBIC 


INCH  OF  WATER,  ACCORDING  TO  PRESSURE. 


Total  pressure  of 
steam  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Corresponding  tem- 
perature of  steam  to 

1 pressure. 

Cubic  inches  of 
steam  from  a cubic 
inch  of  water  ac- 
cording to  pressure. 

Total  pressure  of 

steam  in  pounds 

per  square  inch. 

Corresponding  tem- 

perature of  steam  to 
pressure. 

Cubic  inches  of 

steam  from  a cubic 

inch  of  water  ac- 
cording to  pressure 

1 

102.9 

20868 

28 

247.6 

941 

2 

126.1 

10874 

29 

249.6 

911 

3 

141.0 

7437 

30 

251.6 

883 

4 

152.3 

5685 

31 

253.6 

857 

5 

161.4 

4617 

32 

255.5 

833 

6 

169.2 

3897 

33 

257.3 

810 

7 

175.9 

3376 

34 

259.1 

788 

8 

182.0 

2983 

35 

260.9 

767 

9 

187.4 

2674 

36 

262.6 

748 

10 

192.4 

2426 

37 

264.3 

729 

11 

197.0 

2221 

38 

265.9 

712 

12 

201.3 

2050 

39 

267.5 

695 

13 

205.3 

1904 

40 

269.1 

679 

14 

209.1 

1778 

41 

270.6 

664 

15 

212.8 

1669 

42 

272.1 

649 

16 

216.3 

1573 

43 

273.6 

635 

17 

219.6 

-1488 

44 

275.0 

622 

18 

222.7 

1411  ' 

45 

276.4 

610 

19 

225.6 

1343 

46 

277.8 

598 

20 

228.5 

1281 

47 

279.2 

586 

21 

231.2 

1225 

48 

280.5 

575 

22 

233.8 

1174 

49 

281.9 

564 

23 

236.3 

1127 

50 

283.2 

554 

24 

238.7 

1084 

51 

284.4 

544 

25 

241.0 

1044 

52 

285.7 

534 

26 

243.3 

1007 

53 

286.9 

525 

27 

245.5 

973 

54 

288.1 

516 

92 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTISTE. 


TABLE—  {Continued) 

SHOWING  THE  TEMPERATUKE  OF  STEAM,  ETC. 


Total  pressure  of 
steam  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

! 

Corresponding  tem- 
perature of  steam  to 
pressure. 

Cubic  inches  of 
steam  from  a cubic 
inch  of  water  ac- 

cording to  pressure. 

Total  pressure  of 

steam  in  pounds 

per  square  inch. 

Corresponding  tem- 

perature of  steam  to 
pressure. 

Cubic  inches  of 

steam  from  a cubic 

inch  of  water  ac- 

cording to  pressure. 

55 

289.3 

508 

85 

320.1 

342 

56 

290.5 

500 

86 

321.0 

339 

57 

291.7 

492 

87 

321.8 

335 

58 

292.9 

484 

88 

322.6 

832 

59 

294.2 

477 

89 

323.5 

328 

60 

295.6 

470 

90 

324.3 

325 

61 

296.9 

463 

91 

325.1 

322 

62 

298.1 

456 

92 

325.9 

319 

63 

299.2 

449 

93 

326.7 

316 

64 

300.3 

443 

94 

327.5 

313 

65 

301.3 

437. 

95 

328.2 

310 

66 

302.4 

431 

96 

329.0 

307 

67 

303.4 

425 

97 

329.8 

304 

68 

304.4 

419 

98 

330.5 

301 

69 

305.4 

414 

99 

331.3 

298 

70 

306.4 

408 

100 

332.0 

295 

71 

807.4 

403 

110 

339.2 

271 

72 

308.4 

398 

120 

345.8 

251 

73 

309.4 

393 

130 

352.1 

233 

74 

310.3 

388 

140 

357.9 

218 

75 

311.2 

383 

150 

363.4 

205 

76 

312.2 

379 

160 

368.7 

193 

77 

313.1 

374 

170 

373.6 

183 

78 

314.0 

370 

180 

378.4 

174 

79 

314.9 

366 

190 

382.9 

166 

80 

315.8 

362 

200 

387.3 

158 

81 

316.7 

358 

210 

391.5 

151 

82 

817.6 

354 

220 

395.5 

145 

83 

318.4 

350 

230 

399.4 

140 

84 

319.3 

346 

240 

403.1 

134 

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94 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


HORSE-POWER  OF  STEAM-ENGINES. 

The  power  which  a steam-engine  can  furnish  is 
generally  expressed  in  “ horse-power.”  It  will, 
therefore,  be  necessary  to  make  a brief  explanation 
of  what  is  meant  by  the  term  “ horse-power,”  and 
how  it  has  happened  that  the  power  of  a steam- 
engine  is  thus  expressed  in  reference  to  that  of  horses. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  steam-engine, 
horses  were  very  generally  used  to  furnish  power  to 
perform  various  kinds  of  work,  and  especially  the 
work  of  pumping  water  out  of  mines,  raising  coal, 
etc.  For  such  purposes,  several  horses  working 
together  were  required.  Thus,  to  work  the  pumps 
of  a certain  mine,  five,  six,  seven,  or  some  ^ther 
number  of  horses  were  found  necessary.  When  it 
was  proposed  to  substitute  the  new  power  of  steam, 
the  proposal  naturally  took  the  form  of  furnishing  a 
steam-engine  capable  of  doing  the  work  of  the  number 
of  horses  used  at  the  same  time.  Hence,  naturally 
followed  the  usage  of  stating  the  number  of  horses 
which  a particular  engine  was  equal  to,  that  is,  its 
‘‘  horse-power.” 

But  as  the  two  powers  were  only  alike  in  their 
equal  capacity  to  do  the  same  work,  it  became 
necessary  to  refer  in  both  powers  to  some  work  of  a 
similar  character  which  could  be  made  the  basis  of 
comparison.  Of  this  character  was  the  work  of 
raising  a weight  perpendicularly. 


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95 


A certain  number  of  borses  could  raise  a certain 
weight,  as  of  coal  out  of  a coal  mine,  at  a certain 
speed;  a steam-engine,  of  certain  dimensions  and 
supply  of  steam,  could  raise  the  same  weight  at  the 
same  speed.  Thus,  the  weight  raised  at  a known 
speed  could  be  made  the  common  measure  of  the 
two  powers.  To  use  the  common  measure  it  was 
necessary  to  know  what  was  the  power  of  one  horse 
in  raising  a weight  at  a known  speed. 

By  observation  and  experiment  it  was  ascertained 
that,  referring  to  the  average  of  horses,  the  most  ad- 
vantageous speed  for  work  was  at  the  rate  of  2i 
miles  per  hour  — that,  at  that  rate,  he  could  work  8 
hours  per  day,  raising  perpendicularly  from  100  to 
150  pounds.  The  higher  of  these  weights  was  taken 
by  Watt,  that  is,  150  pounds  at  2}  miles  per  hour. 
But  this  fact  can  be  expressed  in  another  form : — 
2J  miles  per  hour  is  220  feet  per  minute.  So,  the 
power  of  a horse  was  taken  at  150  pounds,  raised 
perpendicularly,  at  the  rate  of  220  feet  per  minute. 
This  also  can  be  expressed  in  another  form: — The 
same  power  which  will  raise  150  pounds  220  feet 
high  each  minute,  will  raise 

300  pounds  110  feet  high  each  minute. 

3,000  “ 11 

33,000  ‘‘  1 “ ‘‘ 

For  in  each  case  the  total  work  done  is  the  same, 
viz.,  same  number  of  pounds  raised  one  foot  in  one 
minute. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


It  will  be  clearly  perceived  that  33,000  pounds, 
raised  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  high  in  a minute,  is  the 
equivalent  of  150  pounds  at  the  rate  of  220  feet  per 
minute  (or  2i  miles  per  hour)  ; and  it  will  be  fully 
understood  how  it  is  that  33,000  pounds,  raised  at 
the  rate  of  one  foot  per  minute,  expresses  the  power 
of  one  horse,  and  has  been  taken  as  the  standard 
measure  of  power. 

It  has  thus  happened  that  the  mode  of  designating 
the  power  of  a steam-engine  has  been  by  “ horse- 
power,” and  that  one  horse -power,  expressed  in 
pounds  raised,  is  a power  that  raises  33,000  pounds 
one  foot  each  minute.  This  unit  power  is  now  uni- 
versally received.  Having  a horse-power  expressed 
in  pounds  raised,  it  was  easy  to  state  the  power  of  a 
steam-engine  in  horse-power,  which  was  done  in  the 
following  manner : 

The  force  with  which  steam  acts  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  its  pressure  in  pounds  on  each  square  inch. 
The  piston  of  a high-pressure  steam-engine  is  under 
the  action  of  the  pressure  of  steam  from  the  boiler, 
on  one  side  of  the  piston,  and  of  the  back  action  of 
the  pressure  due  to  the  discharging  steam,  on  the 
other  side. 

The  Power  of  the  Engine. — The  difference  between 
the  two  pressures  is  the  effective  pressure  on  the 
piston  ; and  the  power  developed  by  the  motion  of 
the  piston,  under  this  pressure,  will  be  according  to 
the  number  of  square  inches  acted  on  and  the  speed 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


97 


per  minute  which  the  piston  is  assumed  to  move* 
Thus,  let  the  number  of  square  inches  in  the  area 
of  the  piston  of  a steam-engine  be  100,  the  effec- 
tive pressure  on  each  square  inch  be  60  pounds, 
and  the  movement  of  the  piston  be  at  the  rate 
of  300  feet  per  minute,  then  the  total  effective 
pressure  on  the  piston  will  be  100x60  = 6,000 
pounds,  and  the  movement  being  300  feet  per  minute, 
the  piston  will  move  with  a power  equal  to  raising 
1,800,000  pounds  one  foot  high  each  minute,  (as 
6,000x300  is  1,800,000,)  and  as  each  33,000  pounds 
raised  one  foot  high  is  one-horse  power,  then  the 
power  of  the  engine  is  54-horse.  ‘ 

Now,  if  this  power  is  used  to  do  work,  a part  of  it 
will  be  expended  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the 
parts  of  the  engine  and  of  the  machinery  through 
which  the  power  is  transmitted  to  perform  the  work. 
The  calculation  made  refers  to  the  total  power  de- 
veloped by  the  movement  of  the  piston  under  the 
pressure  of  steam. 

The  number  of  feet  travelled  by  the  piston  each 
minute  is  known  from  the  length  of  the  stroke  of 
the  piston  in  feet,  and  number  of  revolutions  of 
engine  per  minute,  there  being  two  strokes  of  the 
piston  for  each  revolution  of  the  engine.  When 
these  three  facts  are  known,  the  power  of  an  engine 
can  be  readily  and  accurately  ascertained,  and  it  is 
evident  that,  without  the  knowledge  of  each  of  the 
facts,  viz.,  square  inches  of  piston,  effective  pressure 
9 G 


98 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


on  each  square  inch,  and  movement  of  piston  per 
minute,  the  power  cannot  be  known. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  state  the  power  of  an 
engine,  then  the  three  facts  named  above,  viz.,  num- 
ber of  square  inches  of  piston,  effective  pressure  per 
square  inch  per  stroke  of  piston,  and  speed  of  piston 
must  be  known  or  assumed,  and  when  known  or  as 
sumed,  the  horse -power  can  in  that  case  be  ascer- 
tained, as  explained  above. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  horse-power  referred  to 
in  connection  with  the  steam-engine — nominal,  indi- 
cated, and  actual. 

The  nominal  horse-power  is  a power  that  raises 
33,000  pounds  one  foot  high  each  minute,  or  150 
pounds  220  feet  high  in  the  same  space  of  time. 

The  indicated  horse-power  designates  the  total 
unbalanced  power  of  an  engine  employed  in  over- 
coming the  combined  resistance  of  friction  and  the 
load.  Hence  it  equals  the  quantity  of  work  per^* 
formed  by  the  steam  in  one  minute. 

The  actual  or  net  horse-power  expresses  the  total 
available  power  of  an  engine,  hence  it  equals  the 
indicated  horse-power  less  an  amount  expended  in 
overcoming  the  friction.  The  latter  has  two  compo- 
nents, viz.,  the  power  required  to  run  the  engine, 
detached  from  its  load,  at  the  normal  speed,  and  that 
required  when  it  is  connected  with  its  load.  For 
instance,  if  a person  desires  an  engine  to  drive  ten 
machines,  each  requiring  ten-horse  power,  the  engine 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  one  hundred 
net  horse-power ; but  to  produce  this  would  require 
about  one  hundred  and  fifteen  indicated  horse- 
power. 

Stationary  Engines  in  the  United  States  in  1870. 

— Whole  number  of  stationary  engines  in  the  United 
States  in  1870  was  40,191,  with  an  aggregate  horse- 
power of  1,215,711. 

Rule  for  finding  the  Horse-power  of  Stationary  Engines, 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  by  the  average 
pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch ; multiply  this 
product  by  the  travel  of  piston  in  feet  per  minute ; 
divide  by  33,000,  this  will  give  the  horse-power. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter  of  cylinder 12 

12 

144 

7854 


Area  of  piston 113.0976 

Pressure,  70 ; average  press.,  50...  50 


5654.880 

Travel  of  piston  in  feet  per  min.  300 


33,000)1696464.000 

51.  horse  powei. 

It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  maximum 
pressure  in  the  cylinders  of  steam-engines  and  loco- 
motives never  exceeds  | the  boiler  pressure. 


100 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


2 - 

i 

-Ph 
.P  ^ (M  g 

^ 3 ^ 2 

oTS 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


101 


THE  POWER  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

In  estimating  the  power  of  a locomotive,  the  term 
horse-power  is  not  generally  used,  as  the  difference 
between  a stationary  steam-engine  and  a locomotive 
is  such  that  while  the  stationary  engine  raises  its 
load,  or  overcomes  any  directly  opposing  resistance, 
with  an  effect  due  to  its  capacity  of  cylinder,  the 
load  of  a locomotive  is  drawn,  and  its  resistance  must 
be  adapted  to  the  simple  adhesion  of  the  engine, 
which  is  the  measure  of  friction  between  the  tires 
of  the  driving-wheels  and  the  surface  of  the  rails. 

The  power  of  the  locomotive  is  measured  in  the 
moving  force  at  the  tread  of  the  tires,  and  is  called 
the  traction  force,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  load  the 
locomotive  could  raise  out  of  a pit  by  means  of  a rope 
passing  over  a pulley  and  attached  to  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  tire  of  one  of  the  driving-wheels. 

The  adhesive  power  of  a locomotive  is  the  power 
of  the  engine  derived  from  the  weight  on  its  driving- 
wheels,  and  their  friction  or  adhesion  on  the  rails. 
But  the  adhesion  varies  with  the  weight  on  the 
drivers  and  the  state  of  the  rails. 

The  tractive  force  of  a locomotive  is  the  power 
of  the  engine,  derived  from  the  pressure  of  steam  on 
9* 


102  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

the  piston,  applied  to  the  crank  and  radius  of  the 
wheels. 

Rule  for  finding  the  Horse-power  of  a Locomotive, 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  by  the  pressure 
per  square  inch,  which  should  be  taken  as  i the 
boiler  pressure  ; multiply  this  product  by  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per  minute ; multiply  this  by  twice 
the  length  of  stroke  in  feet  or  inches  ;*  multiply  this 
product  by  2,  and  divide  by  33,000 ; the  result  will 
be  the  power  of  the  locomotive. 


EXAMPLE. 

Cylinder,  19  inches. 

Stroke,  24 

Diameter  of  drivers,  54  inches. 

Eunning  speed,  20  miles,  per  hour. 

Area  of  piston,  283.5  square  inches. 

B^Uer  pressure,  130  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Maximum  pressure  in  cylinders,  80  pounds. 


283.5  X 80  X 4 X 124  X 2 
33,000 


681.6  horse-power. 


RULES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  TRACTIVE 
POWER  OF  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Rule  I.  — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
in  inches  by  itself;  multiply  the  product  by  the 


If  in  inches  they  must  be  divided  by  12. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


103 


mean  pressure  of  steam  in  the  cylinder  in  pound? 
per  square  inch  ; multiply  this  product  by  length  of 
stroke  in  inches ; divide  the  product  by  the  diame- 
ter of  the  wheels  in  inches.  Kesult  equals  the  trac- 
tive force  at  the  rails. 

Rule  2.  — To  calculate  the  load  which  can  he  hauled 
by  an  engine  on  a level  at  a given  speed,  — Divide  the 
tractive  force,  as  per  Eule  1,  by  the  resistance  in 
pounds  per  ton  due  to  friction,  imperfection  of  road, 
and  winds.  The  quotient  is  the  total  load  in  tons, 
comprising  the  engine,  tender,  and  train. 

Rules. — To  calculate  total  resistance  of  engine y 
tender,  and  train  at  a given  speed,  due  to  friction, 
etc,  — Square  the  speed  in  miles  per  hour,  divide  it 
by  171,  and  add  8 to  the  quotient.  The  result  is 
the  totdl  resistance  at  the  rails  in  pounds  per  ton 
weight. 

Rule  4.  — To  find  the  load  a locomotive  ^can  haul  at 
a given  speed  on  a given  incline,  — Divide  the  trac- 
tive power  of  the  engine  in  pounds  by  the  resistance 
due  to  gravity  on  a given  incline,  added  to  resistance 
due  to  assumed  velocity  of  train  in  pounds  per  ton ; 
the  quotient,  less  the  weight  of  the  engine  and  tender, 
equals  the  load  in  tons  the  engine  can  haul  on  a 
given  incline. 

Example,  Rule  I.  — What  is  the  tractive  force 
of  a locomotive  16  inch  cylinder,  24  inch  stioke,  4 
feet  drivers,  mean  pressure  80  pounda  per  square 
inch? 


104 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Cylinder,  16  inches 

16 

16 

96 

16 

Pressure  in  pounds,  80.. 

256 

80 

Stroke,  24  inches 

20480 

24 

81920 

40960 

Drivers  4 ft.  or  48  in.... 

..48)491520 

10240  lbs.  tractive  force. 
2000)10240  lbs.  tractive  force. 
5/3  tons. 

Example,  Rule  2.  — What  load  can  a locomotive, 
16  inch  cylinder,  24  inch  stroke,  4 feet  drivers,  mean 
pressure  80  pounds,  haul  on  a level  at  30  miles  per 
hour? 

Tractive  force,  obtained  as  in  Rule  1,  is  10240  lbs. 
Velocity  per  hour,  30  miles. 

30  13.26)10240 

30  772J  load  in  tons 

171)900 

Resistance  in  5.26 

lbs.  per  ton, 8 

13.26 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


105 


Example,  Rule  4.  — What  load  can  a locomotive, 
16  inch  cylinder,  24  inch  stroke,  4 feet  drivers,  mean 
pressure  80  pounds,  haul  on  a grade  of  132  feet  to 
the  mile  at  30  miles  per  hour  ? 


Tractive  force,  obtained  as  in  Kule  1 10240  lbs 

Eesistance,  in  lbs.  per  ton,  due  to  grav- 
ity (see  Table  of  Gradients) 56 

Eesistance,  in  lbs.  per  ton,  due  to  fric- 
tion, winds,  etc 13.26 


Total  resistance  in  lbs.  per  ton 69.26 

Tractive  force  divided  by  total  resist- 1 69.26)10240.00 

ance  equals  load,  in  tons,  engine  > 7!  147.83 

can  haul,  less  engine  and  tender...] 

Weight  of  engine  and  tender  in  tons 55.65 


Load  in  tons 92.18 


TABLE  OF  ORADIENTS. 

EISE  IN  FEET  PEE.  MILE  AND  EESISTANCE  DUE  TO 
GEAVITY  ALONE. 


Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Eate  of  Gradient 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

Rise  in  feet  per  mile. 

264 

211 

176 

151 

132 

117 

105 

Resistance  in  pounds 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

per  ton  of  train 

112 

89i 

74i 

64 

56 

50 

45 

Besistancey  due  to  gravity  on  any  incline,  in  pounds  per 
ton,  of  train,  equals  2240  divided  by  rate  of  gradient. 

EXAMPLE. 

Gradient  or  rise  of  1 foot  in  20  feet 2240  gross  ton 

20)2240 

Eesistance  in  lbs.  per  ton 112 


106 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


The  power  of  an  engine  may  be  roughly  computed 
by  calling  it  equal  to  ^ of  the  weight  on  the  driving- 
wheels,  when  the  rails  are  wet  or  perfectly  dry. 
Dampness  or  grease  on  the  rails  lessens  the  adhesive 
power  of  locomotives,  as  it  is  well  known  that  the 
adhesion  of  engines  is  less  in  the  neighborhood  of 
depots  and  stations  than  it  is  out  on  the  road.  This 
arises  from  the  quantity  of  oil  that  finds  its  way 
from  the  locomotives  to  the  rails  at  oiling  stations. 


Adhesive  Power  of  Locomotives  per  ton  of  Load  on  tlu^ 
Driving-wheels, 

When  rails  are  dry 600  lbs.  per  ton. 

‘‘  wet 550  “ “ 

‘‘  ‘‘  damp 450  ‘‘  ‘‘ 

Foggy  weather 300  “ ‘‘  ‘‘ 

Ice  or  snowy  weather 200  “ “ “ 


Rule  for  finding  the  Power  of  a Locomotive, 


Cylinder 

Stroke 

Eunning  speed 

Steam  pressure  /in 

boiler 

Maximum  pressure  in 

cylinder 

Revolutions 

Area  of  piston 


18  inches. 

22 

20  miles  per  hour. 

125  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

60  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

125  per  minute,  20  miles  per  hour. 
254.4  square  inches. 


254.4  X 60  X 44  X 125  X 2 
33,000  X 12 


= 424  horse  power. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


107 


PROPORTIONS  OP  LOCOMOTIVES  ACCORDING 
TO  BEST  MODERN  PRACTICE. 

Diameter  of  cylinders  ....  9 inches. 


Length  of  stroke  .... 

16 

Diameter  of  drivers 

. 36 

Wheel-base 

. 6ft.  6 

Capacity  of  tank  .... 

. 250  gallons. 

Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

25,000  pounds. 

LOAD, 

In  addition  to  Weight  of  Engine, 

On  a level 

. 565  gross  tons 

“ 20  feet  grade  per  mile  . 

. 265 

« 40  ‘‘  « « , , 

. 170  ‘‘ 

« 60  “ « « , ^ 

. 125  ‘‘ 

« 80  “ « « , , 

. 100 

o 

o 

. 80 

Diameters  of  cylinders  . 

. 10  inches. 

Length  of  stroke  .... 

20  ‘‘ 

Diameter  of  drivers 

54  “ 

Four-wheeled  Truck  with  centre-hearing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  ...  24  inches. 

Wheel-base  . ...  16ft.  3^  “ 

Capacity  of  tank . ...  900  gallons. 

Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

On  drivers 23,000  pounds, 

“ trucks 15,000  “ 


ti 


Total  weight  of  engine  . 


. 38,000 


108 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


LOAD, 

In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender, 


On  a level  .... 

. 550  gross  tons. 

‘‘  20  feet  grade  per  mile 

250 

« 40  “ 

160  ‘‘ 

“ 60  “ “ “ 

115  “ 

« gQ  « « 

85 

O 

O 

65 

Diameter  of  cylinders 

. 11  inches. 

Length  of  stroke 

16 

Diameter  of  drivers  , 

36  “ 

Two-wheeled  Truck  with  Swing  Bolster  and  Radius  bar. 

Diameter  of  wheels  . 

. 24  inches. 

Wheel-base  .... 

. lift.  3 inches. 

Kigid  wheel-base 

. 4‘‘  8 ‘‘ 

Capacity  of  tank  ....  400  gallons. 


Weight  of  Engine  in  Worhing  Order, 

On  drivers 35,000  pounds. 

‘‘  truck  5,000  ‘‘ 

Total  weight  of  engine  . . . 40,000 


LOAD, 

In  addition  to  Weight  of  Engine, 


On  a level 

‘‘  20  feet  grade  per  mile 

a 40  t(  ((  (( 

U 0Q  « « « 

« gQ  u « U 

« 100  “ « 


785  gross  tong 
370 

240  ‘‘ 

175  “ 

135 

110  '' 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


109 


Diameter  of  cylinders  ...  12  inches. 

Length  of  stroke  ....  22  ‘‘ 

Diameter  of  drivers  . . . . 54  to  60  “ 

Four-wheeled  Truck  with  centre-hearing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  26  inches. 

Wheel-base 18  ft.  1 “ 

Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trwjcs, 

Capacity  of  tank  . . . . 1200  gallons. 

Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

On  drivers 28,000  pounds. 

“ truck  16,000 

Total  weight  of  engine  . . . 44,000  “ 

LOAD, 

' In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender, 


On 

a level 

. 

. • . 

. 665  gross  tons. 

U 

20  feet  grade  per  mile 

305 

U 

40 

« 

u 

190 

ii 

60  ‘‘ 

a 

tt 

135  « 

u 

80 

u 

(C 

100 

n 

100  “ 

it 

75 

Diameter  of  cylinders  ....  13  inches. 

Length  of  stroke  . . . . . 22  to  24  “ 

Diameter  of  drivers  . . . . 56  to  66  “ 

Four-wheeled  centre-hearing  Trucks  with  Swing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  30  inches. 

AVheel-base 20  ft.  IJ  “ 

Rigid  wheel-base  (distance  between 

driving-wheel  centres)  . . 6 “ 6 

10 


110 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trucks, 

Capacity  of  tank 1,400  gallona. 


Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

On  drivers 30,000  pounds. 

On  truck  . . . . . . 20,000  “ 


Total  weight  of  engine 


50,000 


LOAD, 


In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender, 


On  a level 

‘‘  20  feet  grade  per  mile 

<<  U U H iC 

(C  0Q  i(  ((  (i  (( 

(t  gQ  (C  ((  ((  t( 

((  ((  Ct  (C  (t 

Diameter  of  cylinders  . 
Length  of  stroke  . 
Diameter  of  drivers 


. 710  gross  tons. 
. 325 
. 200 
. 140 
. 105 
. 80 


. 14  inches. 

. 22  to  24 
. 56  to  66  “ 


Four-wheeled  centre-hearing  Trucks  with  Swing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  30  inches. 

Wheel-base 20  ft.  7i 

Eigid  wheel-base  (distance  between  dri- 
ving-wheel centres)  . . . . 7 “ 

Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trucks, 

Capacity  of  tank 1,600  gallons. 

Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

On  drivers 35,000  pounds. 

On  truck 20,000  “ 

Total  weight  of  engine  . . , 55,000  ** 


ha:nd-book  of  the  locomotive. 


Ill 


LOAD, 


In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender, 

On  a level 835  gross  tons. 


t( 

20  feet  grade  per 

mile  . 

. 380 

!4 

40  « i(  a 

u 

. 240 

(f 

U 

60  ''  “ '' 

a 

. 170 

a 

it 

80  '' 

(( 

. 124 

(( 

(( 

o 

o 

. 100 

« 

Diameter  of  cylinders 
Length  of  stroke  . 
Diameter  of  drivers 


15  inches. 
22  to  24  ‘‘ 

56  to  66 


Four-wheeled  centre-bearing  Trucks  with  Swing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  30  inches. 

Wheel-base 21  ft.  3 “ 

Bigid  wheel-base  (distance  between  dri- 
ving-wheel centres)  . . . . 7 “ 8 

Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trucks, 

Capacity  of  tank 1,800  gallons. 

Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 

On  drivers 39,000  pounds. 

On  truck  . . . . . . 21,000  ‘‘ 

Total  weight  of  engine  ....  60,000  ** 


LOAD, 

In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender, 

On  a level 930  gross  tons. 

20  feet  grade  per  mile  . . . 430  ‘‘ 

« 40  « . a ^ ^ ^ 270  ‘‘ 

“ 60  190  “ 

u 80  ''  . 140  ‘‘ 

«ioo  « « « « ^ ^ ^ iiQ  « 


112 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Diameter  of  cylinders  ....  16  inches 

Length  of  stroke 22  to  24  “ 

Driving  Wheels, 

Bear  and  front  pairs,  with  flanged  tires  . 5 J in.  wide. 

Main  pair,  with  plain  tires  , . . 6 

Diameter  of  drivers  . . . . 48  to  54  “ 

Four-wheeled  centre-hearing  Truck,  with  Swing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  26  inches 

Wheel-base 23  feet. 

Rigid  wheel-base  (distance  between  cen- 
tres of  rear  and  front  drivers)  . . 12  feet  1 inch 

Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trucks, 

Capacity  of  tank 1,600  gallons. 


Weight  of  Engine  in  Working  Order, 


On  drivers 

. 

. 

. 51,000  pounds. 

On  truck 

• 

• 

. 16,000  ‘‘ 

Total  weight  of  engine 

LOAD, 

• 

. 67,000 

In  addition  to  Engine 

and 

Tender, 

On  a level 

. • 

1,230  gross  tons. 

“ 20  feet  grade,  per  mile  . 

. 570 

« a a (( 

it 

. 360 

u 0Q  u « a 

(( 

. 260  ‘‘ 

<<  80  ‘‘ 

(( 

. 195  “ 

« 100  ''  « “ 

te 

. 155  ‘‘ 

Diameter  of  cylind^  rs 

. 17  inches. 

Length  of  stroke  , 

• • 

. 22  to  24  “ 

Diameter  of  drivers 

, , 

. 56  to  66  '' 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


113 


Four-wheeled  centre-hearing  Truck,  with  Swing  Bolster, 
Diameter  of  wheels  . . . . 24  to  30  inches. 

Wheel-base 22  ft.  6J  ‘‘ 

Eigid  wheel  - base  (distance  between 

driving-wheel  centres)  ...  8 feet. 

Tender  on  two  four-wheeled  Trucks. 

Capacity  of  tank 2,000  gallons. 


Weight  of  Engine  in 

Working  Order. 

On  drivers  .... 

. . 45,000  pounds. 

On  truck  .... 

. 25,000 

a 

Total  v;eight  of  engine  . 

. 70,000 

u 

LOAD, 

In  addition  to  Engine  and  Tender. 

On  a level  .... 

. 1,075  gross  tons. 

20  feet  grade  per  mile 

. 495 

{( 

it  a u li 

. 310 

a 

U 0Q  il  ((  f(  « 

. 220 

u 

a gQ  if  a {(  if 

. 165 

<( 

a 200  <<  “ <<  << 

. 130 

u 

PROPORTIONS  OP  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OP  LO- 
COMOTIVES, ACCORDING  TO  BEST  MODERN 
PRACTICE. 

In  locomotive  engines,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
varies  less  than  in  either  stationary  or  marine  en- 
gines. The  range,  with  few  exceptions,  is  between 
10  and  20  inches. 

10* 


H 


114  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Main 
Steam  Pipe 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Main 
Steam  Pipe 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Main 
Steam  Pipe, 

8 in. 

41  in. 

12  in. 

5 in. 

16  in. 

6 in. 

9 “ 

4 “ 

13  “ 

5 

17 

6 

10  “ 

“ 

14 

5 “ 

18  “ 

6 

11  “ 

4J  “ 

15  “ 

6 “ 

20  “ 

6 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Piston 
Rod. 

Valve 

Stems. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Piston 
Rod. 

Valve 

Stems. 

8 in. 

li  in. 

f in. 

15  in. 

2J  in. 

IJ  in. 

9 “ 

H " 

7 U 
■? 

16  “ 

2 JC.  eng. 

1 1 a 

12^ 

10 

11 

li  “ 

2 “ 

1 “ 
n “ 

16  » 

17  “ 

2iD.eng. 
2i  in. 

1|  “ 

12  “ 

2 

14  “ 

18  “ 

3 “ 

1 7 « 

-^8 

13 

14  “ 

2i 

2i 

n “ 

If  “ 

19 

20  “ 

3i 

3i  “ 

2 “ 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Pump 
Plunger. 

7 in. 

1 in. 

8 

1 “ 

9 

14  “ 

1 10 

U “ 

11 

1 3 « 

8 

11  “ 

15. 

-*■8 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Pump 
Plunger. 

12  in. 

IJ  in. 

12  “ 

If  “ 

13  “ 

If  “ 

14  “ 

If  “ 

14  “ 

-17  it 

J-8 

15  “ 

If 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Pump 
Plunger. 

16  in. 

If  in. 

16 

2 “ 

17  “ 

17  a 

17 

2 

18 

24  “ 

20 

24  “ 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Crank 
Pins. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Crank 
Pins. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Crank 
Pins. 

7 in. 

^ in. 

12  in. 

3 in. 

17  in. 

34  in. 

8 

2J 

13 

3i  “ 

17  “ 

3| 

9 

2|  “ 

14 

3i 

18  “ 

4 '' 

10  ‘‘ 

3 

15 

qi  it 

19  “ 

44 

11 

3 

16 

34  “ 

20  “ 

4i  « 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


115 


Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Length  of 
M’n  Crank 
in  Bearing. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Length  of 
M’n  Crank 
in  Bearing. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Length  of 
MainCrauk 
in  Bearing 

8 in. 

2h  in. 

12  in. 

3^  in. 

16  in. 

3f  in. 

9 ‘‘ 

2|  “ 

13  “ 

3i 

17 

4 “ 

10 

3 

14  “ 

3J 

18  “ 

4i 

11  “ 

3 

15 

3J 

20  “ 

4f-5 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Eeverse 
Shaft 
Bearings. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Eeverse 
Shaft 
Bearings. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Eeverse 
Shaft 
Bearings. 

8 in. 

li^  in. 

12  in. 

2 in. 

16  in. 

2 in. 

9 

n “ 

13 

2 

17 

2 “ 

10  “ 

If 

14 

2 “ 

18  “ 

2 

11  “ 

If 

15 

2 “ 

20 

2 “ 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Depth  of 
MainEods. 

Thick. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Depth  of 
Main  Eods. 

Thick. 

Front 

Back 

Front 

Back 

End. 

End. 

End. 

End. 

8 in. 

2 

IJ  in. 

15  in. 

^8 

1^  in. 

9 

2 

15  a 
^ 8 

16  “ 

3 

2i  “ 

10 

2f 

2^ 

If 

17 

3J 

3 

17  U 
^8 

11  “ 

2i 

2i 

13.  « 

-^4 

18 

3i 

3 

2 

12  “ 

21 

2| 

1i  i( 

J-8 

19  “ 

4 

31 

2 “ 

14 

3 

2| 

17  if 

^8 

20  “ 

4i 

3i 

2i 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Journals 
Driving 
Axles. 

Length  of 
Journals. 

Diameter 

of 

Cylinder. 

Diameter 
of  Journals 
Driving 
Axles. 

Length  of 
Journals. 

7 in. 

8 “ 

9 

10  “ 

11 

12 

13  “ 

1 1 

4 in. 
4f  “ 
4f  “ 
4f  “ 
4i 

5i  “ 
5i  “ 

4f  in.  ■ 
5 

5f  “ 

5J 

5i 

6f  “ 

6J 

14  in. 

15 

16 

16 

17 

18 

20 

6 in. 
6J  “ 

7 “ 

6 

6 

6i 

6^  “ 

6f  in. 

6f 

8 

7 “ 

7 

7i 

7J 

116 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Diameter  of 
Cylinder. 

Steam-port. 

Exhaust-port. 

Bridges. 

8 

ViX  # 

7JXU 

1 

9 

7iX  i 

7iXli 

1 

10 

7iX  f 

7iXli 

i 

11 

10  XI 

10  X2 

■§• 

12 

10  XI 

10  X2 

i 

13 

12  XU 

12  X2J 

1 

14 

13  XU 

13  X2J 

1 

15 

14  XU 

14  X2J 

1 

16 

16  XU 

16  X2i 

1 

17 

16  XU 

16  X2i 

1 

18 

17  XU 

17  X2} 

1 

20 

18  XU 

18  X2i 

1 

TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  TRAVEL  OF  VALVE  AND  THE  AMOUNT 
OF  LAP  AND  LEAD  FOR  DIFFERENT  POINTS  OF  CUT- 
OFF, AND  THE  DISTANCE  THE  STEAM  FOLLOWS  THE 
PISTON  ON  THE  FORWARD  MOTION. 

EXAMPLE. 

Size  of  Cylinder,  16X24  inches ; Travel  of  Valve,  5i 
inches ; Lap,  J inch  outside ; Line  and  Line  inside ; Steam 
Ports,  ISXiJ  inches;  Exhaust,  inches. 


Distance  Steam 

Cut-off. 

Lead. 

Travel  of  Valve. 

follows  Piston, 
Forward  Motion. 

6 in. 

A 

2f 

16-1 

9 “ 

A 

2A 

1711 

12  “ 

i 

2f 

19tV 

15  “ 

A 

^ i 

20  i 

18  “ 

A 

2Uf 

24  “ 

A 

23  i 

1 

HAKr-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


117 


Average  Proportions  of  Different  Parts  of  Locomotives, 

Area  of  steam -ports  equal  to  ^-rea  of  cylinder. 

Area  of  exhaust-port  equal  to  | area  of  cylinder. 

Area  of  main  steam-pipe  from  f to  J area  of  cylinder. 

Diameter  of  piston-rods  the  diameter  of  cylinder. 

Diameter  of  crank-pin  } the  diameter  of  cylinder. 

Diameter  of  valve  stems  the  diameter  of  cylinder. 

Diameter  of  pump-plunger  J the  diameter  of  cylinder. 

RULES. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Size  of  the  Steam-ports  for  Loco- 
motive Engines, — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter 
of  the  cylinder  by  .078.  The  product  is  the  proper 
size  of  the  steam-ports  in  square  inches. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Area  of  Exhaust-ports.  — Mul- 
tiply the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in 
inches  by  .178.  The  product  is  the  area  of  the  educ- 
tion ports  in  square  inches. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Diameter  of  the  Steam-pipe  of 
Locomotive  Engines.  — Multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches  by  .03.  The  pro- 
duct is  the  diameter  of  the  steam-pipe  in  inches. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Diameter  of  the  Piston-rod  for 
Locomotive  Engines.  — Divide  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  in  inches  by  6.  The  quotient  is  the  diam- 
eter of  the  piston-rod  in  inches. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Diameter  of  the  Cranlc-pin  for 
Locomotive  Engines.  — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  in  inches  by  .234.  The  product  is  the  di- 
ameter of  the  crank-pin  in  inches. 


il8  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Diameter  of  the  Feed-pump 
Ram,  — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  in  inches  by  .0083.  The  product  is  the  di- 
ameter of  the  ram  in  inches. 

LOCOMOTIVE  BUILDING. 

Though  locomotive  building  has  long  ceased  to  be 
considered  an  art,  yet  it  requires  the  utmost  atten- 
tion in  respect  to  general  design,  construction,  and 
the  selection  of  materials;  and  for  this  reason  all 
the  principal  parts  are  made  according  to  accurate 
drafts,  templets,  and  gauges  in  their  respective  de- 
partments before  being  taken  to  the  erecting  shop  to 
be  united  in  the  construction  of  the  engine. 

CONSTRUCTION  OP  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  boiler  is  first  placed  horizontal  on  the  construc- 
tion track,  and  levelled  by  the  dome  top. 

The  cylinders  are  next  placed  under  the  front  end 
of  the  boiler,  with  the  smoke-box  resting  in  the  sad- 
dles of  the  cylinders.  The  cylinders  are  then  levelled 
by  their  valve  seats. 

Lines  are  now  accurately  drawn  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  cylinders  to  the  back  end  of  the  boiler,  and 
the  frames  set  up  temporarily  according  to  the  lines 
drawn  through  the  cylinders. 

The  frame  gauges  are  next  placed  on  the  frames, 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  them  in  their  right  posi- 
tion and  proper  distance  apart. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


119 


Lines  are  again  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the 
cylinders  to  the  back  end  of  the  frame,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  if  the  frames  are  parallel  at  both 
ends,  and  with  the  cylinders. 

Straight-edges  are  now  laid  across  the  top  of  the 
frames,  to  determine  whether  the  frames  are  level  or 
not,  and  also  if  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  frame 
to  the  centres  of  the  cylinders  corresponds  exactly. 

The  distance  between  the  frames  and  the  shell  of 
the  boiler  is  next  measured,  to  ascertain  the  thickness 
of  the  liners. 

The  furnace-pads  are  then  placed  in  position  and 
marked,  counter-sunk,  or  planed  to  correspond  with 
the  ends  of  the  stay-bolts  on  the  outside  of  the  fur- 
nace sheet,  and  also  to  stand  parallel  with  the  outside 
of  the  frames. 

The  cylinders  are  next  bolted  to  the  smoke-arch, 
and  the  frames  to  the  cylinders. 

The  foot-plate  is  now  placed  on  the  frame,  at  the 
back  end  of  the  boiler;  also,  the  back  furnace 
braces  and  cross-ties  fitted,  drilled,  and  bolted  to  their 
respective  places. 

The  waste-sheet  is  then  attached  to  the  waste  of 
the  boiler,  and  the  guide-braces  and  guide-bearers 
made  fast  to  the  boiler  and  the  frames. 

The  guides,  cross-heads  and  back-heads  of  cylin- 
ders are  next  put  on,  and  the  pistons  inserted  in  the 
cylinders  and  keyed  to  the  cross-heads. 

The  smoke-box  braces  are  then  fitted  and  drilled, 
and  the  centre  casting  bolted  to  the  smoke-box. 


120 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


The  flues,  steam-pipe,  throttle-pipe,  throttle-valve, 
and  arch-pipes  are  next  placed  in  the  boiler,  and  the 
safety-valves  and  whistle-stand  attached  to  the  steam 
dome. 

The  boiler  is  then  put  under  steam  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  if  it  leaks  or  needs  caulking.  Then 
the  boiler,  cylinders,  and  steam  domes  are  lagged  and 
jacketed. 

The  frame  is  now  jacked  up,  the  driving-wheels 
placed  in  the  pedestals,  the  boxes  secured  by  means 
of  keys  and  wedges,  and  the  pedestal  caps  put  on. 

The  rocker  boxes  are  next  bolted  to  the  frame,  and 
the  rocker  shafts  placed  in  their  proper  positions. 
The  rockers  and  rocker  boxes  need  to  be  adjusted 
with  a great  deal  of  accuracy,  as  any  slight  divergence 
of  the  rockers  from  correct  lines  would  derange  the 
whole  valve  gear. 

The  reverse  shaft  is  then  fastened  on  the  frame  by 
means  of  clamps,  and  its  proper  place  determined  by 
accurate  measurements  from  its  centres  to  the  centres 
of  the  rockers. 

The  valves  are  then  placed  on  their  seats  in  the 
steam-chest,  and  the  valve-yokes  and  valve-rods 
attached  to  the  rocker-arms. 

The  eccentric  straps  and  eccentric  rods  are  next 
attached  to  the  links,  and  the  link-block  connected 
with  the  rocker.  Then  everything  is  ready  to  set  the 
valves. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


121 


SETTING  THE  VALVES  OP  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Setting  the  valves  of  locomotives  is  perhaps  one  of 
the  most  important  duties  the  engineer  has  to  under- 
take, involving,  as  it  does,  nicety  of  calculation  and 
mechanical  accuracy ; and  as  the  circumstances  of 
construction,  valve  gear,  pressure,  and  work  to  be 
done  varies,  it  will  at  once  be  apparent  that  no  one 
uniform  rule  for  valve  setting  can  be  laid  down. 

Everything  being  ready  to  set  the  valves  of  the 
locomotive,  the  main  rods  are  put  on,  and  the  driving- 
wheels  blocked  up  until  the  centre  of  the  driving- 
boxes  are  parallel  with  centre  of  the  cylinders ; the 
wedges  in  the  driving-boxes  are  then  set  up  to  pre- 
vent lost  motion. 

A circle  is  next  described  on  the  hub  of  the  driv- 
ing-wheel equal  in  diameter  to  the  width  of  the 
straps  on  the  main  rods;  a straight-edge  is  now 
placed  on  the  strap,  and  the  wheels  moved  forward 
until  the  position  of  the  straight-edge  on  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  strap  is  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the 
circle  on  the  hub  of  the  wheel. 

A centre-punch  mark  is  then  made  on  the  frame, 
in  which  one  point  of  a trammel-gauge  is  inserted, 
and  with  the  other  point  a mark  is  described  on  the 
face  of  the  tire  of  the  driving-wheel.  Another  cen- 
tre-punch mark  is  made  on  the  guide  even  with  the 
end  of  the  cross-head  at  its  farthest  travel.  These 
marks  represent  the  position  of  the  crank  and  cross- 
11 


122 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


head  at  full  stroke,  or  when  the  crank  is  at  the 
dead  centre  on  the  forward  motion. 

^ 'j 

TRAMMEL  GAUGE. 

Now,  if  the  engine  is  24-inch  stroke,  the  wheel  is 
moved  forward  until  the  cross-head  travels  12  inches 
from  the  centre-punch  mark  on  the  end  of  the  guide. 
The  point  of  the  trammel-gauge  is  now  inserted  in 
the  centre-punch  mark  on  the  frame,  and  another 
mark  is  described  on  the  face  of  the  tire  of  the 
driving-wheel ; these  points  represent  the  position  of 
the  crank  and  cross-head  at  half-stroke. 

The  wheel  is  again  turned  forward  until  the  dead 
centre  is  reached,  or  until  the  lines  on  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  strap  correspond  with  the  circle  on  the 
hub  of  the  wheel ; here  another  mark  is  made  on  the 
guide  at  the  end  of  the  cross-head.  At  this  point 
also  another  centre-punch  mark  is  made  on  the  frame, 
and  with  the  tram  a mark  is  described  on  the  face 
of  the  tire  as  before. 

The  wheel  is  then  turned  forward  until  the  cross- 
head travels  12  inches  from  the  last  mark  made  on 
the  guide.  Then  the  point  of  the  tram  is  inserted  in 
the  centre-punch  mark  on  the  frame,  and  another 
mark  described  on  the  face  of  the  tire  of  the  driving- 
wheel.  Now,  these  four  marks  will  represent  the 
four  centres  of  the  wheel  on  that  side. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


123 


The  wheel  is  next  turned  until  the  dead  centre  is 
reached  on  the  forward  motion,  and  the  reverse  lever 
dropped  until  the  distance  between  the  link-block 
and  the  end  of  the  link  is  about  t of  an  inch,  or,  in 
Other  words,  f between  striking  points. 

Should  the  lead  be  right  at  this  point,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  reverse  latch  is  marked  on  the  quadrant ; 
but  if  more  or  less  than  the  required  amount,  the 
adjustment  is  made  by  moving  the  eccentric  and 
lengthening  or  shortening  the  eccentric  rods  by 
means  of  slotted  holes  at  the  point  where  the  rods  are 
connected  with  the  straps.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  lead  is  always  adjusted  by  moving  the 
eccentrics,  and  the  dividing  is  effected  by  shortening 
or  lengthening  the  rods. 

The  wheel  is  moved  forward  again  to  the  other 
centre,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  if  the  lead  is 
right  at  that  end  of  the  stroke ; and  if  it  should  be 
found  to  be  more  or  less,  the  adjustment  is  made  as 
before  by  moving  the  eccentric,  and  the  lengthening 
or  shortening  is  done  by  the  rods  in  the  slotted  holes. 

The  wheel  is  again  turned  forward  until  the  cross- 
head moves  12  inches,  and  the  valve  is  at  its  farthest 
travel.  The  position  of  the  reverse  latch  is  marked 
on  the  quadrant  at  this  point,  which  gives  the  full 
opening  of  the  port  when  the  link  is  in  full  gear. 
The  intermediate  points  of  cut-off  are  then  marked 
on  the  quadrant,  which,  for  an  engine  24-inch  stroke, 
are  generally  6,  9,  12,  15,  18. 


124 


HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


In  setting  the  valves  of  locomotives,  care  must  be 
taken  to  turn  the  wheel  forward  for  the  forward 
motion,  and  bach  for  the  backward  motion.  The 
notches  on  the  quadrant  for  the  backward  motion 
are  determined  in  the  same  way  as  for  the  forward 
motion,  but  there  is  generally  one  more  notch  for  the 
forward  than  for  the  back  motion,  for  the  reason  that 
the  forward  motion  is  more  used.  The  position  of 
the  out-notch  is  determined  by  moving  the  reverse 
lever  until  the  valve  is  in  the  centre  of  its  travel,  of 
until  the  link-block  is  directly  under  the  saddle. 

The  eccentric  straps  are  next  taken  off  and  the 
holes  drilled  for  the  bolts  that  form  the  permanent 
connection  between  the  straps  and  the  rods.  The 
positions  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  driving-axles  are 
next  marked  with  a diamond-pointed  chisel,  the  set- 
screws slackened,  and  the  eccentrics  moved  out  for 
the  purpose  of  slotting  the  axles  for  the  feathers. 

The  feathers  are  next  inserted  in  the  axles,  and  the 
eccentrics  forced  back  to  the  same  position  they  occu- 
pied before  being  marked  with  the  diamond-pointed 
chisel ; the  forward  eccentric  being  generally  placed 
on  the  inside.  The  set-screws  are  now  screwed  down. 
The  set-screws  for  the  eccentrics  of  locomotives  are 
generally  concaved  and  case-hardened  on  the  points. 

The  eccentric  straps  and  rods  are  next  put  on  and 
connected  with  the  links;  after  which  the  springs 
are  mounted,  all  the  minor  details  of  construction 
and  adjustment  finished  up,  and  the  engine  painted 
and  made  ready  for  the  road. 


ll* 


The  American  locomotive,  the  last  great  crowning  invention  of  the  human  intellect,  has  no  peer 
for  beauty  of  design,  or  in  the  performance  of  its  work. 


126 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DEAD  WEIGHT  OF  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  idea  of  lessening  the  dead  ” and  increasing 
the  paying  ” weight  of  locomotives,  by  utilizing  the 
weight  of  fuel  and  water,  and  the  tanks  for  the  same, 
early  suggested  itself  to  railroad  mechanics. 

An  ordinary  eight-wheeled  American  locomotive, 
with  four  5-feet  driving-wheels,  and  15x22  inch 
cylinders,  weighs,  in  working  order,  about  58,000 
pounds,  of  which  about  36,000,  or  less  than  two-thirds, 
is  carried  on  the  driving-wheels.  A four-wheeled 
switching  engine,  which  weighs  18  tons,  has  all  its 
weight  on  the  driving-wheels,  and  consequently  will 
draw  as  many  cars  as  an  eight-wheeled  locomotive 
weighing  29  tons. 

The  tender  of  such  an  engine  will  weigh  20,000 
pounds  empty,  and  will  carry  1,800  gallons  of  water 
and  three  tons  of  coal,  making  a total  weight  of 
41,000  pounds.  And  as  the  supply  of  fuel  and  water 
varies  very  much,  the  tank  being  sometimes  full  but 
very  seldom  empty,  it  would  be  about  fair  to  count 
two-thirds  of  the  water  and  coal  as  the  average  weight 
carried.  Therefore  the  average  weight  of  the  tender 
will  be  34,000  pounds,  which,  added  to  that  on  the 
truck  of  the  engine,  would  make  the  total  dead  weight 
of  the  locomotive  and  tender  56,000  pounds. 

The  great  difficulty  heretofore  in  the  way  of  re- 
ducing the  ‘‘dead  weight”  of  locomotive  engines, 
would  seem  to  arise  from  the  necessity  of  using  large 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


127 


boilers,  the  value  or  efficiency  of  the  engine  being 
dependent  upon  its  boiler  capacity;  and  as  large 
boilers  must  of  necessity  be  accompanied  by  weight 
in  proportion  to  their  size,  the  theory  of  reduction  of 
dead  weight,  in  engines,  seems  to  be  reduced  to  two 
propositions,  viz.,  lighter  boilers  or  lighter  parts. 

But  as  the  nominal  adhesion  of  the  standard  eight- 
wheel  American  engine  is  often  insufficient  as  at 
present  constructed,  hence  it  follows  that  if  the  weight 
be  materially  reduced,  a large  proportion  of  the  re- 
maining weight  must  be  placed  upon  the  driving- 
wheels. 

Various  new  systems  and  theories  have  been  urged 
at  different  times  with  a view  of  lessening  the  ‘‘  dead  ” 
and  increasing  the  “paying^’  weight  on  railroads. 
Tank  engines  seem  to  offer  the  most  practical  solution 
of  the  problem  involved  in  the  reduction  of  dead 
weight,  as  the  tender  can  be,  to  a certain  extent,  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  weight  of  the  water  and  fuel 
utilized  on  the  drivers. 

It  is  true  that  water  and  fuel  stations  would  have 
to  be  arranged  nearer  each  other  than  is  usual  with 
the  present  system  of  engine  and  tender.  But  it  is 
claimed  that  the  facility  with  which  tank  engines 
run  backward  or  forward,  thus  dispensing  with  turn- 
tables, and  saving  the  time  ordinarily  consumed  in 
turning,  would  more  than  counterbalance  the  addi- 
tional expense  incurred  in  the  increase  of  the  fuel 
and  water  stations.  It  is  a fact  not  sufficiently  borne 


]28 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


in  mind  that  there  is  a good  deal  of  unnecessary  ex- 
pense involved  in  hauling  large  weights  of  fuel  and 
water  over  long  distances  on  tenders. 

The  locomotive  represented  on  page  125  was 
especially  designed  to  overcome  the  evil  above 
mentioned.  By  this  plan  .not  only  is  all  the 
weight  of  the  boiler  and  machinery  carried  by  the 
driving-wheels,  but  by  extending  the  frame  beyond 
the  fire-box  far  enough  to  receive  the  tank,  and 
placing  a truck  underneath  to  carry  the  weight  of 
water  and  fuel,  a long  wheel-base  is  secured,  which 
adjusts  itself  to  the  curvature  of  the  track,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  whole  weight  of  the  engine  and 
boiler  is  carried  on  the  driving-wheels.  By  this 
means  the  galloping  motion  common  in  tank  engines 
is  obviated,  and  the  steadiness  of  an  ordinary  eight- 
wheel  locomotive  is  attained. 

The  tank  engine  described  in  the  above  paragraph 
has  been  designed  to  run  with  its  truck  ahead ; and 
as  one  of  the  essential  features  of  the  plan  is  to  carry 
the  boiler  and  machinery,  whose  weight  is  permanent, 
on  the  driving-wheels,  and  the  water  and  fuel,  which 
are  variable,  on  the  truck,  therefore,  running  the  loco- 
motive in  this  way  reverses  the  positions  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  brings  the  boiler,  smoke-stack,  etc., 
behind,  which  is  claimed  to  be  an  advantage,  as  when 
a locomotive  runs  with  the  smoke-box  ahead,  the 
smoke  in  the  tubes  moves  in  the  same  direction  as  che 
locomotive,  consequently  the  draft  created  by  the 


HA.ND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


129 


movement  of  the  latter  retards  the  draft  in  the 
tubes. 

It  is  also  asserted  that  there  is  an  advantage  in 
having  the  water-tank  in  front,  and  the  boiler  and 
smoke-stack  behind.  The  view  of  the  track  is  thus 
entirely  unobstructed,  and  there  is  no  liability  of  its 
being  obstructed  by  smoke  or  escape  steam.  The 
cabs  of  tank  engines  of  this  plan  can  be  entirely 
closed  up  in  cold  weather,  as  it  is  not  necessary  to 
keep  a communication  to  a separate  tender  open,  as 
on  ordinary  engines. 


tablp: 

SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  REVOLUTIONS  PER  MINUTE 
MADE  BY  DRIVERS  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  OF  DIFFERENT 
DIAMETERS  AND  AT  DIFFERENT  SPEEDS. 


Driving  wheel 
Diameter. 

Speed  in  Miles  per  Hour. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
Mile. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

4 ft.  0 in. 

140 

175 

210 

420 

4 “ 3 

132 

165 

198 

395.5 

4 « 6 “ 

124 

156 

186 

O) 

p. 

373.6 

4 « 9 « 

118 

148 

177 

207 

si 

354 

5 0 

140 

168 

196 

.2  ^ 
s 

336 

5 “ 3 “ 

W 

o 

134 

160 

187 

IS 

320.2 

5 6 “ 

■< 

128 

153 

179 

204 

O) 

305.9 

5 9 

Sg 

146 

170 

195 

292.3 

6 “ 0 “ 

c 2 

140 

163 

187 

280.3 

6 3 '' 

135 

157 

179 

224 

269 

6 ''  6 

129 

150 

172 

216 

258.6 

7 « Q U 

120 

140 

160 

200 

240 

I 


130 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


NARROW-GAUGE  FAIRLIE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  above  cut  represents  one  of  ‘‘Mason’s  Narrow-Gauge’’ 
FairJie  Locomotives.  On  this  class  of  engines  the  tank  is 
bolted  to  the  boiler,  and  rests  on  two  trucks  with  centre- 
pins,  which  enables  it  to  pass  around  sharp  curves  with  ease. 
The  steam-pipes  have  ground  joints,  and  turn  in  their  socket 
when  the  engine  is  going  around  a curve. 

Number  of  Locomotives  in  the  United  States. — 

Whole  number  of  locomotives  in  use  in  the  United 
States  at  the  close  of  1873  was  14,200. 

Age  of  Locomotives.  — Locomotives  Nos.  1 and  2 
built  by  Braithwaite  & Co.,  London,  England,  1838, 
or  nine  years  after  George  Stephenson’s  “ Kocket  ” 
was  placed  on  the  track,  are  still  running  on  the 
Reading  Railroad,  at  Port  Richmond,  Philadelphia. 

Number  of  Miles  Run  by  Locomotives.  — En- 
gine No.  49  on  the  Reading  Railroad,  from  August 
1st,  1857,  to  November  1st,  1873,  447,138  miles. 
Number  of  Miles  Run  by  Locomotives  in  One 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


131 


Year.  — Engine  46  on  the  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne  and 
Chicago  Railroad,  in  1872,  44,500  miles. 

Average  number  of  miles  run  in  one  year  by  pas- 
senger and  express  locomotives  was  26,000. 

Speed  on  Railroads. — The  highest  speed  ever 
attained  in  this  country,  or  perhaps  in  the  world,  and 
continued  for  any  length  of  time,  is  that  made  by  the 
Newspaper  Express  between  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, the  run  of  93  miles  being  made  daily  in  If 
hours,  including  four  stoppages. 

Speed  on  English  Railroads.  — The  fastest  speed 
ever  attained,  and  continued  for  any  length  of  time, 
by  passenger  and  express  locomotives  on  English 
railroads,  was  50  miles  per  hour ; the  average  speed 
being  about  35  miles  per  hour. 

Average  speed  of  freight  locomotives  in  England, 
about  15  miles  per  hour. 

Average  speed  of  freight  locomotives  in  the  United 
States,  about  12  miles  per  hour. 

Heavy  Locomotives.  — The  largest  locomotive  in 
the  world  is  the  “Pennsylvania,’’  on  the  Reading 
Railroad.  Diameter  of  cylinders,  20  inches ; stroke, 
26  inches ; number  of  driving-wheels,  12 ; diameter 
of  drivers,  4 feet ; weight  of  engine  alone,  60  tons. 
The  heaviest  locomotives  in  Europe  are  the  four- 
cylinder  freight  engines  on  the  Northern  Railway  of 
France.  Cylinders,  18 inches;  stroke,  18 inches;  12 
coupled  wheels,  42  inches  diameter ; weight  of  loco- 
motive, 66  tons. 


132 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


The  dimensions  of  the  steam-ports  rank  next  in 
importance  to  the  cut-off  in  their  controlling  influ- 
ence upon  the  proportions  of  the  valve  seat  and  face. 
They  may  justly  be  considered  as  a base,  from  which 
all  the  other  dimensions  are  derived,  in  conformity 
with  certain  mechanical  laws. 

Their  value  depends  greatly  upon  the  manner  in 
which  the  ports  are  employed,  whether  simply  for 
admitting  the  steam  to  the  cylinder,  or  for  purposes 
both  of  admission  and  escape. 

In  case  of  admission,  if  the  port  is  properly  designed, 
it  is  evident  that  the  pressure  will  be  sustained  at  sub- 
stantially a constant  quantity  by  the  flow  of  steam 
from  the  boiler.  But  with  the  exhaust  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent, as  the  steam  is  forced  into  the  atmosphere  with 
a constantly  diminishing  pressure  and  less  velocity. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


13S 


When  a small  travel  of  the  valve  is  essential,  the 
length  of  the  port  should  be  made  as  nearly  jequal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  as  possible.  • 

The  following  table  will  show  the  proper  area  of 
steam-ports  and  steam-pipes  for  different  piston  speeds, 
as  it  is  assumed  that  for  average  lengths  of  pipe  the 
area  increases  as  the  speed,  and  that  a higher  speed 
is  usually  attended  by  increased  pressure : 


Speed 

of  Piston. 

Port 

Area. 

Steam-pipe  Area. 

200  feet 

per  minute. 

.04 

area 

of  piston. 

.025  area  of  piston. 

250 

u 

u 

(( 

.047 

u 

(( 

.032 

a 

a 

300 

u 

i( 

« 

.055 

(C 

(( 

.039 

a 

a 

350 

(i 

(i 

(( 

.062 

u 

it 

.046 

it 

it 

400 

(( 

u 

.07 

u 

it 

.053 

a 

it 

450 

u 

u 

(( 

.077 

(C 

it 

.06 

it 

a 

500 

u 

(i 

(( 

.085 

(. 

it 

.067 

it 

it 

550 

u 

(i 

u 

.092 

u 

a 

.074 

a 

a 

600 

u 

(( 

(i 

.1 

(( 

it 

.08 

it 

a 

BRIDGES. 

The  width  of  the  bridges  is  usually  made  of  equal 
thickness  with  the  cylinder,  in  order  to  secure  a 
perfect  casting ; but  at  times  it  becomes  necessary  to 
increase  or  decrease  their  width. 

The  only  danger  from  a narrow  bridge  is  an  over- 
travel  of  the  valve,  by  which  the  exhaust  passage 
would  be  placed  in  direct  communication  with  the 
“ live  steam  ” in  the  chest,  and  followed  by  continual 
waste  of  the  power. 

The  width  of  bridges  for  different  size  cylinders  of 
locomotives  varies  from  | up  to  li  inches. 

12 


134 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


ECCENTRICS. 

The  term  eccentric  is  applied  in  general  to  all  such 
curves  as  are  composed  of  points  situated  at  unequal 
distances  from  a central  point  or  axis. 

Upon  close  inspection  it  appears  that  this  is  only 
a mechanical  subterfuge  for  a small  crank. 

This  being  so,  a crank  of  the  ordinary  form  may 
be,  and  frequently  is,  used  instead  of  an  eccentric  — 
in  point  of  fact,  the  latter  is  the  real  substitute, 
being  a mechanical  equivalent  introduced,  because 
the  use  of  the  crank  is,  for  special  reasons,  incon- 
venient or  impracticable. 

And  since  the  shaft  to  which  the  eccentric  is  fixed 
here  makes  a half  revolution  while  the  piston  is  mak- 
ing one  stroke,  it  follows  that  whatever  device  may  be 
used  for  converting  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the 
piston  into  rotatory  motion,  the  slide-valve  may  be 
actuated  by  an  eccentric  fixed  on  any  shaft  which 
makes  a half  revolution  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


185 


It  will  now  be  observed  that  the  eccentric  and 
valve  connection  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that 
of  a small  crank  with  a long  connecting  rod ; the 
valve  will  therefore  move  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  piston,  and  will  have  in  its  progress  from 
one  extremity  of  the  travel  to  the  opposite  like  irreg- 
ularities, different  only  in  degree.  In  other  words, 
when  the  eccentric  arrives  at  the  positions  for  cut-off 
and  lead,  the  valve  will  be  drawn  beyond  its  true 
position  — measured  towards  the  eccentric  — by  a 
distance  dependent  on  the  ratio  between  the  throw 
of  the  eccentric  and  the  length  of  its  rod. 

When  the  eccentric  stands  at  right  angles  to  the 
crank,  the  exhaust  closes  and  release  commences  at 
the  extremities  of  the  stroke;  consequently,  if  the 
eccentric  be  moved  ahead  30°,  not  only  will  the  cut- 
off take  place  30°  earlier,  or  at  a crank-angle  of  120° 
instead  of  150°,  but  the  release,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
haust, will  take  place  30°  earlier,  or  at  the  150® 
crank-angle. 

For  a cut-off,  say  of  140°,  there  would  be  required 
an  angular  advance  of  20°,  and  a lap  equivalent  to 
the  distance  these  degrees  remove  the  eccentric  centre 
from  the  line  at  right  angles  to  the  crank ; for  a cut- 
off of  160°,  an  advance  of  10°,  with  a correspond- 
ing lap,  and  so  on,  the  exhaust  closure  taking  place 
respectively  at  the  160°  and  170°  crank-angles. 

This  closure  of  the  exhaust  confines  the  steam  in 
the  cylinder  until  the  port  is  again  opened  for  the 


186 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


return  stroke ; consequently  the  piston  in  its  progress 
will  meet  with  increasing  resistance  from  the  steam, 
which  it  thus  compresses  into  a less  and  less  volume. 

Such  opposition,  when  nicely  proportioned,  aids  in 
overcoming  the  momentum  stored  up  in  the  recipro- 
cating parts  of  the  engine,  and  tends  to  bring  them 
to  a uniform  state  of  rest  at  the  end  of  each  stroke. 

Since  the  closure  of  one  port  is  simultaneous  with  the 
opening  of  the  other,  a release  will  take  the  place  of 
the  steam  which  was  previously  impelling  the  piston. 

Within  certain  limits  an  early  release  is  produc- 
tive of  a perfect  action  of  the  parts,  for  an  early 
release  enables  a greater  portion  of  the  steam  to 
escape  before  the  return  stroke  commences  ; whereas, 
a release  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  would  be  attended 
by  a resistance  of  the  piston’s  progress,  from  the 
simple  fact  that  steam  cannot  escape  instantaneously 
through  a small  passage,  but  requires  a certain  defi- 
nite portion  of  time,  dependent  on  the  area  of  the 
opening  and  the  pressure. 

The  advance  of  the  eccentric  denotes  the  angle 
which  the  eccentric  forms  with  its  position  at  half- 
stroke, when  the  piston  is  at  the  commencement  of 
its  stroke,  and  is  called  Angular  Advance, 

ECCENTRIC  RODS. 

The  variable  character  of  the  lead  opening,  in  a 
shifting-link  motion,  depends  upon  the  manner  in 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


137 


which  its  eccentric  rods  are  attached,  and  its  amount 
depends  on  the  length  of  those  rods. 

The  shorter  the  eccentric  rods  the  greater  is  the 
front  admission,  and  the  less  is  the  admission  for  the 
back.  The  quality  of  the  motion  derived  from  the 
link  is  modified  by  the  position  of  the  working  cen- 
tres, and  most  especially  of  the  centre  of  suspension 
and  connection.  The  centre  of  suspension  is  the  most 
influential  of  all  in  regulating  the  admission;  and 
its  transition  horizontally  is  much  more  efiicacious 
than  a vertical  change  of  place,  to  the  same 
extent. 

Length  of  the  Eccentric  Rods. — The  length  of 
the  eccentric  rod  is  the  distance  from  *the  centre  of 
the  driving-axle  to  the  centre  of  the  rocker-pin, 
when  the  rocker  stands  plumb. 

Formula  by  which  to  find  the  Positions  of  the  Eccentric 
on  the  Shaft. 

First  Draw  upon  a board  two  straight  lines  at 
right  angles  to  one  another,  and  from  their  point  of 
intersection  as  a centre  describe  two  circles,  one  rep- 
resenting the  circle  of  the  eccentric,  the  other  the 
crank  shaft ; draw  a straight  line  parallel  to  one  of 
the  diameters,  and  distant  from  it  the  amount  of  lap 
and  lead ; the  points  in  which  this  parallel  intersects 
the  circle  of  the  eccentric  are  the  positions  of  the 
'Orward  and  backing  eccentrics. 

Second.  Through  these  points  draw  straight  lines 
12* 


138 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


from  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  mark  the  intersection 
of  these  lines  with  the  circle  of 
the  crank-shaft ; measure  with 
a pair  of  compasses  the  chord 
of  the  arc  intercepted  between 
either  of  these  points  and  the 
diameter  which  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  crank,  the 
diameters  being  first  marked 
on  the  shaft  itself;  then  by 
transferring  with  the  com- 
passes the  distance  found  in 
the  diagram,  and  marking  the 
point,  the  eccentric  may  at 
any  time  be  adjusted  without  difficulty. 

Example.  — Let  F G and  E C be  the  two  straight 
lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other ; the  circle  described 
with  A B as  a radius  be  the  end  view  of  the  shaft ; 
the  circle  described  with  A C as  a radius  be  the 
circle  described  by  the  centre  of  the  eccentrics ; and 
H I the  line  parallel  to  E C,  and  distant  from  it  the 
amount  of  the  lap  and  lead. 

Then  if  F G represents  the  direction  of  the  crank 
when  on  the  centre,  H and  I will  be  the  positions  of 
the  centres  of  the  eccentrics,  according  to  the  rule. 
If,  then,  the  points  K and  L,  in  which  the  lines  A 
H and  A I intersect  the  circle  representing  the  shaft, 
be  transferred  to  the  shaft,  by  laying  off  on  its  end 
the  two  diameters,  and  the  chords  B K and  L M,  the 
eccentrics  can  readily  be  set. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


139 


The  above  cut  represents  the  position  of  the  valve  at  full 
stroke,  or  when  the  crank  is  at  the  dead  centre.  S,  steam 
ports ; D,  exhaust  opening  in  valve  seat ; E,  exhaust  cavity 
in  valve  ; A,  lead, 

THE  SLIDE-VALVE. 

The  slide-valve  is  that  part  of  a steam-engine  which 
causes  the  motion  of  the  piston  to  be  reciprocating. 
It  is  made  to  slide  upon  a smooth  surface,  called  the 
valve  seat,  in  which  there  are  three  openings  — two 
for  the  admission  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  alternately, 
while  the  use  of  the  third  is  to  convey  away  the 
waste  steam.  The  first  two  are,  therefore,  termed  the 
steam-ports,  and  the  remaining  the  eduction  or  ex- 
haust port. 

In  examining  the  special  application  of  the  slide- 
valve  to  the  steam-engine,  it  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
sider what  the  requirements  of  the  engine  are ; for  the 
valves,  of  whatever  kind,  being  to  that  machine  what 
the  lungs  are  to  the  body,  must  necessarily  be  so  actu- 
ated as  to  regulate  the  admission  and  escape  of  the 


140 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


steam,  which  is  its  breath,  in  accordance  with  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  motion  of  the  piston. 

The  valve  may  be  said  to  be  the  vital  principle  of 
the  engine.  It  controls  the  outlet  to  the  coal  and 
wood  pile.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  importance 
that  it  should  work  practically  under  all  circum- 
stances. 

Now  the  admission  of  steam  is  one  thing  and  its 
escape  is  another,  and  though  both  may  be  regulated 
by  what  is  called  one  valve,  because  it  is  made  in  one 
piece,  yet  this  is  not  by  any  means  necessary.  Four 
separate  valves  may  be,  and  sometimes  are,  employed 
in  stationary  engines — a steam  and  an  exhaust  valve 
at  each  end  of  the  cylinder ; but  the  functions  of  all 
these  are  distinctly  performed  by  the  common  three- 
ported  slide-valve. 


Position  of  the  valve  at  half  stroke. 

It  is  evident  that  the  admission  cannot  continue 
longer,  in  any  case,  than  the  stroke  does,  so  that  by 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


141 


the  time  that  is  completed,  the  valve  must  have  opened 
and  closed  the  port.  These  conditions  determine  the 
modification  of  the  movement  which  must  be  used, 
and  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  port  for  any  assumed 
travel  of  valve. 

When  the  motion  of  a slide-valve  is  produced  by 
means  of  an  eccentric,  keyed  to  the  crank-shaft  and 
revolving  with  it,  the  relative  positions  of  the  piston 
and  slide-valve  depend  upon  the  relative  positions  of 
the  crank  and  eccentric. 

The  greatest  opening  of  the  port  is  half  the  travel 
of  the  valve ; in  this  case  the  steam  is  admitted  during 
the  whole  stroke  of  the  piston,  at  the  beginning  of 
which  the  valve,  which  has  no  lap,  is  at  the  centre 
of  its  travel. 


The  annexed  cut  shows  the  position  of  the  valve  when  the 
link  is  in  mid-gear,  or  when  the  link-block  is  .directly  under 
the  saddle,  and  the  reverse  latch  in  the  out  notch,  L repre- 
sents the  lap. 

If  the  eccentric  be  so  placed  that  at  the  beginning 
of  the  stroke  of  the  piston  the  valve  is  not  at  the 


142 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


centre  of  its  travel,  the  opening  of  the  port  will  be 
reduced,  and  it  will  be  closed  before  the  piston  com- 
pletes its  stroke. 

In  this  case,  the  opening  of  the  port  will  be  less 
than  half  the  travel,  by  as  much  as  the  valve,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  varies  from  its 
original  central  position.  And  when  the  valve  is  at 
half  stroke  it  will  overlap  the  port  on  the  opening 
edge  to  the  same  extent. 

The  point  in  the  stroke  of  the  piston  at  which  the 
port  will  be  closed  and  the  steam  cut  off,  will  depend 
upon  the  angular  position  of  the  eccentric  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  stroke. 

When  the  valve  is  so  formed  that,  at  half  stroke,  the 
faces  of  the  valve  do  not  close  the  steam-ports  inter- 
nally, the  amount  by  which  each  face  comes  short  of 
the  inner  edge  of  the  port  is  known  as  inside  clearance. 

From  the  nature  of  the  valve  motion,  it  follows  that 
the  distribution  is  controlled  by  the  “ outer  and  inner 
edges  of  the  extreme  ports  and  of  the  valve.”  The 
mere  width  of  the  exhaust-port  or  thickness  of  bars  is 
immaterial  to  the  timing  of  the  distribution. 

The  extreme  edges  of  the  steam-ports  and  those  of 
the  valve  regulate  the  admission  and  suppression; 
and  the  inner  edges  of  the  ports  and  the  valve  com- 
mand the  release  and  compression. 

For  every  stroke  of  the  piston,  four  distinct  events 
occur — the  admission,  the  suppression,  the  release, 
and  the  compression. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


113 


The  advance  of  the  valve  denotes  the  amount  by 
which  the  valve  has  travelled  beyond  its  middle  posi- 
tion, when  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  and 
is  known  as  linear  advance. 

The  slide-valve  is  said  to  be  very  imperfect  and 
wasteful  of  fuel ; but,  on  account  of  its  simplicity, 
durability,  and  positive  action,  it  has  been  able  to 
compete  with  the  best  modern  improvements,  and  it 
is  at  the  present  time  the  only  valve  in  use  on  all  the 
railroads  in  the  world. 

With  all  its  defects  it  must  be  conceded  that  noth- 
ing has  yet  been  introduced  that  has  so  well  answered 
the  purpose  of  controlling  the  induction  and  eduction 
of  steam  to  the  locomotive  cylinder  as  the  ordinary 
slide  valve,  nor  does  it  at  present  seem  probable  that 
it  ever  will  be  superseded. 

FRICTION  ON  THE  SLIDE-VALVE. 

The  great  aim  of  all  engineers  has  been  to  removt; 
the  weight  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  steam  from 
the  back  of  the  slide-valve ; but  it  has  been  considered 
almost  impossible  to  produce  a frictionless  slide-valve. 

The  percentage  of  the  friction  of  the  slide-valve, 
as  compared  with  the  cylinder’s  power,  ranges  between 
10  and  20  per  cent.,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
valve,  variation  in  the  position  of  the  gear,  etc. ; for 
while  the  cylinder  decreases  in  power  as  the  crank 
approaches  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the  friction  of  the 
valve  and  eccentrics  increases. 


144 


HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Length  of  the  Valve  Rods. — The  length  of  the 
valve  rods  is  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the 
rocker  pins  to  the  centre  of  the  valves,  when  the 
valves  are  placed  centrally  over  the  ports  and  the 
rocker  arm  stands  plumb. 

LAP  AND  LEAD  OP  VALVE. 

Lap,  OP  lap  of  valve,  is  understood  to  be  the  dis- 
tance the  valve  overlaps  each  steam  opening  when 
placed  centrally  over  the  port.  The  amount  of  lap 
is  regulated  by  the  point  at  which  the  steam  is  to  be 
cut  off,  or  the  degree  of  expansion  to  be  attained,  as 
without  lap  there  would  be  no  expansion,,  because  the 
suppression  and  release  would  occur  at  the  same  time. 

Lap  on  the  steam  side  is  termed  outside  lap.  Lap 
on  the  exhaust  side  is  known  as  inside  lap. 

Lead  of  Valve. — Leac?  is  understood  to  be  the  width 
of  port  opening  given  by  any  valve  on  the  steam  end 
when  the  crank  is  at  either  dead  centres,  and  the 
angular  distance  of  the  crank  from  its  zero  at  the 
instant  this  opening  commences,  is  termed  lead  angle. 
Lead  on  the  steam  side  is  denominated  outside  lead^ 
or  lead  for  the  admission ; on  the  exhaust  side  it  is 
inside  lead,  or  lead  for  the  exhaust. 

Lap  and  Lead  of  Valve.  — Lap  and  lead  procure 
an  early  and  efficient  release,  because  the  lead  of  the 
exhaust,  or  the  amount  by  which  the  valve  is  open  to 
the  exhaust,  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  is  increased  by  • 
as  much  as  the  addition  of  lap  on  the  outside. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


14/$ 


Lap,  Lead,  and  Travel  of  Valve.  — As  lap,  lead, 
and  travel  regulate  the  distribution  of  steam,  an  alter- 
ation of  any  one  of  these  affects  it  in  a definable  man- 
ner. If  they  be  equally  varied  in  conjunction,  the 
distribution  remains  the  same. 

BALANCED  SLIDE-VALVE. 

The  mechanical  difficulty  of  producing  a practi- 
cal balanced  slide-valve,  trustworthy  under  every 
kind  of  locomotive  work,  seems  to  have  been  success- 
fully overcome.  Balanced  valves  are  now  in  use 
on  nearly  all  the  principal  railroads  in  the  coun- 
try, and  are  said  to  meet  all  the  demands  of  locomo- 
tive practice. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  saving  in  the  wear  and  tear 
of  valve  motion  with  balanced  valves,  especially  in 
the  case  of  large  engines,  is  very  great,  as  they  can 
be  kept  out  of  the  repair  shop  much  longer  than  en- 
gines with  common  slide-valves. 

It  is  also  asserted  by  railway  mechanics  that  they 
are  not  liable  to  any  sudden  derangement,  either  on 
fast  passenger  trains  or  on  freight  trains;  and  the 
comfort  of  the  drivers  is  greatly  enhanced  by  having 
an  engine  that  can  be  notched  up  or  reversed  as 
easily  with  the  throttle  open  as  shut. 

Miles  ran  with  balanced  valves  without  facing, 
75,000  to  150,000;  miles  run  with  common  slide- 
valves  without  facing,  30,000  to  50,000. 

13  K 


146 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  LAP  AND  LEAD  ON  THB 
VALVES  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  IN  PKACTICE,  ON  35  OF 
THE  PRINCIPAL  RAILROADS  IN  THIS  COUNTRY. 


Locoraotives  Running  Express  Passenger  Trains, 


25  use 


\ inch  outside  lap. 

I inch  inside  lap. 

5 inch  travel  of  valve, 
yij  inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


{I  inch  outside  lap. 
tV  inch  inside  lap. 

4|  inch  travel  of  valve. 
J inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


I inch  outside  lap. 
i inch  inside  lap. 

5 inch  travel  of  valve. 

I inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


Locomotives  Running  Express  Accommodation  Trains, 
f inch  outside  lap. 

I inch  inside  lap. 

5 inch  travel  of  valve, 
inch  lead  in  full  gear. 

1 inch  outside  lap. 

inch  inside  lap. 

5i  inch  travel  of  valve, 
y’g  inch  lead  in  full  gear. 

f inch  outside  lap. 
y^^  inch  inside  lap. 

4i  inch  travel  of  valve. 

I inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


20  use  ^ 


10  use 


6 use 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


147 


Locomotives  Running  Heavy  Freight  Trains, 


19  use 


11  use 


^ I inch  outside  lap. 

yig  inch  inside  lap. 

\ 5 inch  travel  of  valve, 
yig  inch  lead  in  full  gear. 

f I inch  outside  lap. 

I I inch  inside  lap. 

] 4:1  inch  travel  of  valve, 
i inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


5 use 


^ I inch  outside  lap. 

inch  inside  lap. 

I 4|  inch  travel  of  valve, 
j’jy  inch  lead  in  full  gear. 


THE  LINK. 


this  general  term  have  many  strong  points  of  resem- 
blance, and  subserve  a common  object. 

By  means  of  the  link  the  engineer  is  able  at  will 
to  change  the  direction  of  the  engine,  with  only  the 
loss  of  time  required  for  overcoming  the  momentum 
of  the  moving  parts  and  developing  the  like  in  a 
reverse  direction. 


148 


HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


More  than  this  was  not  contemplated  in  the  orig= 
inal  discovery  of  the  link.  Subsequently,  however, 
it  was  found  to  be  capable  of  regulating  the  cut-off 
of  the  steam,  so  that  the  power  could  always  be  ad- 
justed to  the  work  required. 

The  extreme  simplicity  of  the  parts  of  the  link- 
motion  has  enabled  it  to  compete  successfully  with  all 
rivals,  and  at  the  present  day  it  remains  substantially 
in  its  original  form. 

The  motion  of  each  eccentric  prevails  in  that  half 
of  the  link  to  which  it  is  coupled,  and  at  the  centre 
the  motion  of  the  link  is  equally  composed  of  the 
two  eccentrics. 

A link  operated  by  two  fixed  eccentrics  forms, 
when  properly  suspended,  an  exact  mechanical  equiv- 
alent of  the  movable  eccentric.  Unlike  the  latter, 
however,  its  motion  is  capable  of  an  accurate  adjust- 
ment, which  practically  obviates  the  effect  of  irregu- 
larities in  cut-off  and  exhaust  closure,  attributable  to 
the  angularity  of  the  main  connecting  rod. 

Horizontal  motion,  communicated  to  the  link  by 
the  joint  action*^of  the  eccentrics,  is  a minimum  at 
the  centre  of  its  length,  where  it  is  equal  to  twice  the 
linear  advance,  and  it  increases  toward  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  various  periods  of  the  block  in  the  link, 
or  of  the  link  on  the  block,  on  the  general  principle 
that  admission  varies  with  the  travel  of  the  valve. 

The  distribution  derived  from  the  link  is  affected  by 
the  length  of  the  connecting-rod  relative  to  that  of 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


149 


the  crank  — the  shorter  the  rod,  th^  greater  is  the 
front  admission,  and  the  less  is  the  admission  for  the 
back  stroke ; therefore  the  term  ‘‘  link-motion,'’  in 
so  far  as  it  involves  the  relation  of  the  valve’s  mo- 
tion to  that  of  the  piston,  virtually  includes  the  pro- 
portions of  the  piston  motion. 

- The  nature  of  the  motion  derived  from  the  link  is 
modified  by  the  positions  of  the  working  centres,  and 
most  especially  of  the  centres  of  suspension  and  con- 
nection ; the  centre  of  suspension  is  the  most  influen- 
tial of  all  in  regulating  the  admission,  and  its  tran- 
sition horizontally  is  much  more  efficacious  than  a 
vertical  change  of  place  to  the  same  extent. 

The  periods  of  admission  in  half-gear  are  much 
more  sensitive  to  variation  by  mode  of  suspension 
and  connection  than  those  in  full  and  mid-gear. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  to  set  the  motion  right 
for  this  position  as  regards  the  quality  of  the  admis- 
sion, because  these  diflTerences  for  other  positions  are 
then  inconsiderable. 

As  the  vertical  movement  of  the  body  of  the  link 
with  the  consequent  slip  between  the  link  and  the 
block  is  the  least  possible  when  the  suspended  centre 
lies  in  the  centre  line  of  the  link,  increasing  as  the 
centre  is  removed  laterally,  the  centre  line  of  the 
link  is,  in  this  respect,  the  most  favorable  locality  for 
the  suspension,  though  not  always  practicable  for 
equal  admissions. 

In  practice  it  has  been  found  that  the  stationary 
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150 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


151 


and  shifting  links  have  not  the  same  neutral  centres 
of  suspension ; that,  in  general,  the  stationary  link 
should  be  hung  by  a centre  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  middle  of  its  length,  and  the  shifting  link  towards 
one  of  the  extremities. 

The  periods  of  expansion  and  release  increase  as 
those  of  admission  are  diminished,  and  when  the 
points  of  suppression  are  equally  adjusted  those  of 
release  do  not  considerably  differ. 

The  utmost  period  of  expansion  obtained  by  a sta- 
tionary link  in  mid-gear  is  38  per  cent,  for  12  per 
cent,  of  admission,  in  which  case  the  steam  is  cut  off 
at  less  than  one-eighth  of  the  stroke,  and  expanded 
into  a volume  of  50  per  cent.,  or  one-half  stroke, — 4 
times  the  initial  volume,  exclusive  of  clearance, — after 
which  it  exhausts  during  the  remaining  half-stroke. 

With  the  stationary  link  the  shortest  admission  is 
11  per  cent.,  or  one-ninth  of  the  stroke,  expanding 
into  50  per  cent.,^or  times  the  initial  volume, 
before  the  release  takes  place. 

With  the  shifting  link,  the  smallest  attainable 
admission  is  about  17  per  cent.,  or  one-sixth  of  the 
stroke ; this  is  about  one-half  more  than  what  is  ob- 
tained by  the  stationary  link,  the  difference  being 
due  to  the  excess  of  lead  yielded  by  the  shifting. 

As  the  release  takes  place  at  half-stroke,  the  shift- 
ing link  cannot  expand  the  steam  above  three  times 
its  initial  volume,  exclusive  of  clearance. 

The  average  period  of  admission  in  full  gear  does 
not  exceed  75  per  cent.,  or  three-fourths  of  the  stroke. 


152 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


More  than  this  should  not  be  required,  nor  indeed 
could  it  be  beneficially  employed  at  regular  speed ; 
the  admission  may,  however,  be  increased  by  forcing 
the  mechanism  of  the  valve  beyond  full  gear  — that 
is,  by  causing  the  block  to  work  in  the  extreme 
overhung  parts  of  the  link,  which  must  be  extended 
for  the  purpose  beyond  the  centres  of  connection ; by 
this  expedient  the  throw  of  the  valve  is  increased. 

ADJUSTMENT  OF  THE  LINK. 

Besides  the  qualities  possessed  in  common  by  the 
two  motions,  the  link  has  that  of  adjustability,  a very 
important  feature,  and  one  which  especially  charac- 
terizes it. 

As  the  tendency  of  the  connecting-rod  angularity 
in  a direct  acting  engine  is  to  produce  a later  cut-off 
on  the  forward  stroke  than  the  amount  required,  and 
since  with  the  link  the  cut-ofi*  in  either  stroke  de- 
pends on  its  degree  of  elevation  or  depression,  it  fol- 
lows that  if  we  suspend  the  link  in  such  a manner 
as  to  cause  a suitable  elevation  for  the  forward 
stroke,  the  result  will  be  a perfectly  equalized  motion 
for  the  gear  in  question. 

Aud  again,  if  the  equalization  be  made  applicable 
to  all  gears,  then  the  link  may  be  suspended  at  any 
point  between  the  full  forward  and  full  back  without 
an  appreciable  inequality  appearing  between  the  cut- 
os's  or  the  exhaust  closures  of  either  stroke. 

But  a practical  difficulty  here  arises  — the  link- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


153 


block  moves  upon  a fixed  arc,  while  the  link  rises 
and  falls ; consequently,  for  each  revolution  of  the 
crank  the  link  will  slip  back  and  forth  a certain  dis- 
tance on  its  block. 

Should  this  slip  be  excessive  in  any  particular 
gear,  and  the  engine  run  a long  time  in  this  gear, 
the  faces  of  the  link  would  become  worn,  “ lost 
motion  ” would  ensue,  and  the  accurate  action  of  the 
parts  would  be  destroyed. 

It  is  also  obvious  that  the  slip  must  grow  smaller 
as  the  link-block  draws  nearer  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion, because  this  fact  indicates  that  the  stud  of  the 
saddle  should  be  placed  — when  a minimum  value 
of  the  slip  is  required  at  a certain  point  of  suspen- 
sion — as  nearly  over  such  point  as  possible. 

The  stationary  link  gives  a constant  lead. 

With  the  shifting  link  the  lead  varies  with  the 
expansion. 

The  linear  advance  of  the  eccentrics,  with  the  sta- 
tionary link,  is  always  less  than  that  of  the  valve, 
and  is  efiected  by  the  length  of  the  eccentric  rods. 

With  the  shifting  link,  the  linear  advance  of  the 
valve  is  in  all  cases  equal  to  that  of  the  eccentrics  in 
full  gear,  independently  of  the  length  of  the  rods ; 
by  full  gear  is  meant  that  the  fore-rod  is  brought  into 
the  centre  line  of  the  valve-rod.  In  other  positions 
the  linear  advance  of  the  valve  varies  precisely  with 
the  lead. 

The  link  was  invented  by  Williams,  of  New  Castle, 
England. 


154 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


The  above  cut  represents  an  end  view  of  the  spring  piston 
packing,  such  as  is  used  in  locomotives,  i represents  the  front 
end  of  piston-rod ; T,  piston-head ; A,  wings ; /,  studs ; e,  jam- 
nuts  ; dj  springs ; holes  for  follower-bolts  ; C,  C,  rings. 


STEAM  AND  SPRING  CYLINDER  PACKING  FOR 
LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  chief  merit  of  steam  packing  is  said  to  con- 
sist in  its  absence  of  friction,  when  not  under  pres- 
sure of  steam,  in  descending  grades  and  upon  ap- 
proaching stations. 

It  is  also  claimed  for  steam  packing  that  it  can  be 
more  cheaply  constructed  than  spring  packing,  and, 
after  being  first  put  in  the  cylinder,  requires  no  sub- 
sequent adjustment  by  the  engineer. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  for  spring  packing 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


155 


that  it  is  more  steam-tight  than  steam  packing,  less 
liable  to  blow,  and  is  not  affected  by  varying  steam 
pressures  in  the  cylinder. 

And  while  not  absolutely  without  friction  under 
the  above  circumstances,  is  nearly  so  when  fitted  with 
springs  of  proper  elasticity,  say  sufficient  to  keep  the 
rings  in  contact  with  the  cylinder  without  exerting 
undue  pressure. 

The  highest  number  of  miles  run  with  a set  of 
steam  packing  without  repair,  200,000;  average, 

150.000. 

The  highest  number  of  miles  run  with  a set  of 
spring  packing  without  repair,  150,000;  average, 

100.000. 

Setting  out  Spring  Cylinder  Packing. — Setting 
out  spring  packing  in  the  cylinders  of  locomotives 
requires  the  exercise  of  great  care  and  judgment, 
for,  like  valve  setting,  no  general  rule  can  be  laid 
down  — the  proper  adjustment  must  in  all  cases  de^ 
pend  on  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  engineer. 
An  ignorant  or  careless  adjustment  of  the  packing 
may  at  any  time  not  only  materially  lessen  the  power 
of  the  engine,  but  literally  ruin  both  the  packing 
and  the  cylinders.  If  the  packing  be  set  out  too 
tight,  the  friction  between  the  packing-rings  is  in- 
creased to  such  an  extent  that  the  power  that  ought 
to  be  transmitted  from  the  pistons  to  the  driving- 
wheels  is  wasted  in  overcoming  the  friction  in  the 
cylinders.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  packing  is 


156 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


allowed  to  be  slack,  the  steam  will  escape  and  oc- 
cupy the  cylinder  in  front  of  the  piston  on  the  ex- 
haust end,  causing  excessive  cushioning,  with  great 
waste  of  steam  and  loss  of  power  in  the  engine. 


PACKING  FOR  THE  PISTONS  AND  VALVE  RODS 
OF  LOCOMOTIVES. 

There  is  probably  no  part  of  the  locomotive  more 
frequently  out  of  order,  or  gives  greater  annoyance, 
than  the  piston-  and  valve-rod  packing. 

A vast  deal  of  study  and  ingenuity  have  been 
applied  to  the  removal  of  this  annoyance,  and  the 
production  of  a durable  piston-rod  packing.  Wire 
gauze,  gum,  soapstone,  jute,  asbestos,  metallic  pack- 
ing, and  a great  variety  of  other  materials  have  been 
tried,  but  without  very  satisfactory  results. 

Hemp,  when  properly  used,  serves  a good  purpose, 
as  it  has  the  advantage  of  always  being  ready  and 
requiring  no  special  tools  to  prepare  it  for  use,  nor 
any  particular  size  of  stufSng-box,  and  can  be  used 
as  well  by  the  unskilful  as  the  skilled  man ; but  its 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


157 


usefulness  is  limited,  particularly  where  steam  of  a 
high  pressure  is  used,  as  it  soon  loses  its  elasticity, 
and,  in  consequence,  becomes  worthless. 

Soapstone  gives  tolerably  good  results,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  producing  less  friction,  and  is  not 
so  liable  to  flute  or  cut  the  rods  as  hemp.  But  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  the  same  kind  of  packing 
would  give  the  same  results  on  different  roads,  as  it 
is  well  known  that  the  packing  wears  out  faster  on 
sandy  roads  than  those  that  are  not  sandy ; nor  does 
packing  give  the  same  service  on  slow  freight  loco- 
motives that  it  does  on  fast  passenger  engines.  The 
failure  of  packing  to  give  satisfactory  results  in 
many  cases  is  due  to  a want  of  skill  and  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  persons  using  it. 

The  softer  the  packing  can  be  kept  in  the  stuffing- 
boxes,  the  more  service  it  will  do ; for  when  it  loses  its 
spring  or  elasticity,  it  materially  interferes  with  the 
easy  working  of  the  engine,  and  any  extra  tighten- 
ing has  a tendency  to  char  and  render  it  worthless. 

If  the  packing  leaks  badly  around  the  rod  after 
being  renewed,  and  it  is  found  impossible  to  make  it 
steam-tight,  it  is  always  better,  if  time  will  permit, 
to  take  out  one  or  two  rings  and  reverse  them,  which 
will  be  found,  in  most  cases,  to  give  relief ; or  if  it 
becomes  necessary  to  tighten  the  packing,  it  is  always 
better  to  do  so  when  it  is  cold,  or  after  the  engine 
has  been  standing  still  for  some  time. 

Metallic  packing,  for  piston-rods,  has  been  tried 


158 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


by  a number  of  the  principal  railroads  in  the  coun- 
try ; but  its  use  has  been  generally  abandoned  on 
account  of  its  results  not  bearing  out  its  first  costs 
and  needed  repairs. 

There  is  at  present,  and  always  has  been,  a great 
need  of  a permanent  and  reliable  piston-rod  pack- 
ing. Such  an  article  would  not  only  be*productive 
of  very  economical  results  on  railroads,  but  would 
greatly  lessen  the  labors  of  engineers. 

Rule  for  finding  the  size  of  Piston-  and  Valve-Rod 
Packing. 

Measure  the  piston-  or  valve-rod;  then  measure 
the  stem  of  the  stuffing-box;  divide  the  difference 
between  them  by  two. 

For  example:  Rod  2 inches,  box  4 — packing  1 
inch ; rod  1 inch,  box  2 — packing  J inch ; rod  | 
inch,  box  li  — packing  | ; rod  2 inches,  box  — 
packing  f ; rod  H inches,  box  4 inches  — packing  IJ. 


CUGNOT’S  LOCOMOTIVE— 1769. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


159 


BRASSES  FOR  DRIVING  AXLES  OF  LOCOMO- 
TIVES. 

The  importance  of  good  workmanship  in  fitting 
the  brasses  in  the  boxes  of  driving  axles  is  well 
known  to  railway  mechanics,  because  unless  thor- 
oughly fitted  they  are  liable  to  become  loose  and 
give  trouble.  Hexagon-shaped  brasses  generally  give 
better  results  than  either  half-round  or  gib  brasses, 
when  properly  fitted. 

The  most  permanent  device  for  securing  half 
round  brasses  in  driving  boxes  is  by  means  of  brass 
pins  driven  in  holes  drilled  through  the  boxes  and 
brasses. 

Octagon  brasses  are  best  secured  by  means  of  lugs 
cast  on  the  brass,  in  the  ceiitre  of  their  length,  and  fitted 
into  recesses  cast  in  the  box.  This  is  considered 
better  than  a flange  on  the  ends,  as  the  thickness  of 
the  brass  can  be  seen  without  taking  it  out. 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Best  Milage  for  Driving  Brasses  before  Becoming 
Loose, 


Half-round  Brasses, 

Highest. 

. 120,000 

Lowest. 

10,000 

Octagon  “ ... 

. 125,000 

25,000 

Brass  gibs,  fitted  with  Babbit  metal. 

. 100,000 

85,000 

Babbit  metal  possesses  an  advantage  in  case  the 
box  should  get  hot,  — the  metal  will  run  and  prevent 
cutting. 

LATERAL  MOTION. 

Lateral  motion  is  understood  to  be  the  distance  or 
the  clearance  between  the  rails  and  flanges  of  loco- 
motive and  truck  wheels,  and  which  in  general  prac- 
tice is  about  i of  an  inch  for  the  forward  driving-  and . 
truck-wheels,  and  about  f for  the  rear  drivers.  The 
difference  in  gauge  for  front  and  rear  drivers  is  to 
allow  for  the  radius  of  the  curve,  and  is  of  great 
importance,  especially  in  the  case  of  ten-wheeled  en- 
gines, or  those  having  an  extended  wheel-base. 

A liberal  allowance  of  lateral  motion  is  beneficial, 
as  it  lessens  the  friction,  more  especially  in  curving, 
and  saves  a large  amount  of  power  in  drawing  trains ; 
but  wide  lateral  motion  involves  a certain  amount  of 
danger,  as  there  is  a liability  of  breaking  the  flanges 
when  thrusted  against  the  rail,  or  forcing  the  wheels 
ofi*  the  axles  when  striking  guard-rails  and  frogs. 
Wide  lateral  motion  is  also  attended  with  too  much 
oscillation  of  the  car  body  for  safety,  when  running 
around  sharp  curves  at  a high  speed. 


HAITD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


161 


The  variation  in  the  wheel-gauge  of  locomotives  is 
immensely  less  than  that  of  cars.  This  is  necessarily 
so  from  the  fact  that  the  one  is  employed  upon  a 
fixed  gauge,  and  runs  repeatedly  over  the  same 
track;  while  the  others,  from  the  general  and  ex- 
tended character  of  our  railway  traffic,  must  pass  over 
other  lines. 


SPEED  INDICATORS. 

There  is  probably  nothing  connected  with  the  run- 
ning of  locomotives  so  uncertain  as  the  time  made 
by  trains  between  the  different  points  on  their  trips, 
or  for  any  number  of  consecutive  hours ; for  while 
it  is  known  that  express  and  light  passenger  trains 
often  exceed  30  miles  an  hour  on  one  part  of  their 
trip,  they  as  often  fall  below  25  miles  an  hour  on 
the  other  part,  without  any  apparent  cause,  even 
where  the  road  is  perfectly  level.  Many  of  the  acci- 
dents that  occur  on  railroads  might  be  attributed  to 
this  irregularity  of  speed,  more  particularly  so  in 
the  case  of  light  freight  trains. 

To  obviate  this  difficulty,  speed  indicators  should 
be  placed  on  every  locomotive,  which  would  enable 
railroad  officers  to  ascertain  the  regular  speed  cf 
trains  at  different  points  on  the  trip,  also  show  the 
ability  of  engines  of  a certain  class  and  size  to  make 
a uniform  specified  time  all  over  the  road. 

14*  ' L 


162 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


o 


HA^iTD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


163 


LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

The  boiler  is  the  most  important  part  of  a locomo- 
tive engine,  and  the  |useful  effects  of  the  machine 
depend,  in  a great  degree,  on  its  strength  and  effi- 
ciency. In  fact  it  might  be  said  that  the  boiler  is 
the  backbone  of  the  whole  machine,  as  it  has  to 
withstand  the  effect  of  every  shock  and  strain  to 
which  the  moving  mass  is  exposed,  and  yet  there  is 
no  part  of  locomotive  construction  in  which  there  has 
been  so  little  improvement  as  in  the  boiler.  Special 
machinery  has  been  made  for  manufacturing  nearly 
every  other  part,  while  in  the  construction  of  the 
boiler  the  same  appliances  are  still  employed  as  was 
used  years  ago. 

In  all  other  parts  of  the  machinery  where  great 
strength  is  required,  gauges  and  templets  are  used  to 
insure  the  most  exact  fitting,  while  in  boiler  con- 
struction very  little  apparent  effort  has  been  made  to 
secure  accurate  workmanship.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why 
some  analogous  system  is  not  employed  by  boiler- 
makers as  well  as  by  machinists. 

The  sheets  of  the  locomotive  boilers  are  exposed  to 
the  operation  of  various  powerful  chemical  and  me- 
chanical forces,  all  of  which  have  a tendency  to 
hasten  their  destruction. 

The  first  and  chief  of  these  forces  is  the  pressure 
of  steam,  which  generally,  on  locomotive  boilers,  is  of 
tremendous  elastic  force. 


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HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Then  there  are  the  strains  caused  by  the  jarring 
of  the  locomotive,  especially  on  some  roads,  and  at 
some  seasons  of  the  year,  when  the  earth  is  loosened 
by  the  breaking  up  of  the  frost,  and  the  sleepers  and 
rails  are  in  a shaky  condition. 

Next  the  oxidation  caused  by  the  ingredients  in 
the  water,  the  mechanical  force  of  the  water  itself, 
and  its  impact  against  the  walls  of  the  boiler,  the 
injurious  effects  of  which  must  be  severe. 

All  these  strains  combined  affect  the  several 
parts  of  the  boiler  — the  intense  heat  rendering  the 
material  more  crystalline  and  more  liable  to  frac- 
ture ; the  continual  jar  having  a tendency  to  loosen 
the  rivets  and  weaken  the  whole  structure. 

A boiler  may  be  abundantly  strong,  but  insuffi- 
ciently stiff ; whereas,  in  a locomotive  boiler,  above 
all  others,  identity  of  form  is  of  great  importance, 
as,  besides  the  ordinary  contingencies  of  overstrained 
joints  and  leakage,  resulting  from  change  of  form, 
there  are,  unavoidably,  connections  and  attachments 
to  be  made  here  and  there  which  can  only  be  main- 
tained in  good  order  under  superior  conditions  of 
stability  of  parts. 

A locomotive  boiler  must  evidently  possess  other 
features  of  strength  than  those  required  in  a mere 
steam  generator.  However  strongly  and  independ- 
ently the  frames  of  the  engines  may  be  constructed, 
the  simple  holding  of  the  boiler  in  place  upon  them 
necessitates  considerable  extra  stiffness  in  the  latter. 


HAXD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


165 


The  boiler  answers,  in  part,  as  a framing,  and  not 
only  stiffens  the  structure,  preventing  side  or  lateral 
flexure,  but  sustains  the  entire  fore  and  aft  strain 
of  the  engine,  as  developed  in  cylinders,  since  the 
centre  line  of  the  boiler  is  so  far  above  that  of  the 
cylinder,  giving  the  latter  so  much  leverage  that  the 
strain  tends  to  pry  the  boiler  asunder  at  the  junction 
of  the  waist  with  the  fire-box. 

Kegarding  the  locomotive-boiler  as  a cylinder  with 
flat  ends,  greatest  strain  falls  necessarily  upon 
the  longitudinal  seams,  and  the  least  upon  the  cur- 
vilinear seams  at  and  between  the  ends  of  the  boiler. 

The  longitudinal  seams,  therefore,  should  in  all 
cases  be  double-riveted,  while  for  curvilinear  seams, 
bearing  only  half  the  strain  that  is  upon  the  other, 
the  single-riveted  seam  is  sufficient,  being  propor- 
tionably  stronger,  with  respect  to  strains  arising  from 
steam  pressure,  than  the  other. 

Steel  plates  are  now  very  generally  used,  and  their 
importance  as  a material  for  the  construction  of  loco- 
motive boilers  is  fully  established,  as  is  shown  by  the 
successful  results  of  careful  experimental  investiga- 
tions. Steel  is  always  crystalline  in  its  nature. 
Whatever  the  jarring  and  straining  to  which  it  is 
exposed,  its  quality  cannot  be  altered  in  that  respect ; 
while  its  toughness,  notwithstanding  its  crystalline 
structure,  is  to  wrought-iron  as  two  to  four,  and  in 
some  cases  more  than  that. 

The  thickness  of  iron  plates  generally  used  for 


166 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


locomotive  boilers  ranges  from  i to  | ; but  wlien 
steel  is  used,  this  thickness  can  be  reduced  or  even 
iy  as  steel  plates  i inch  thick,  for  boilers  48  inches  in 
diameter,  are  perfectly  safe  at  150  pounds’  pressure  per 
square  inch,  besides  affording  increased  facilities  for 
the  transmission  of  heat  from  the  fire  to  the  water. 

It  is  evident  then  that  in  case  no  more  steam 
pressure  is  carried,  the  repair  expenses  of  steel 
boilers,  as  compared  with  iron  of  equal  section,  will 
be  decreased,  not  only  in  proportion  to  their  superior 
strength,  but  in  a great  proportion  by  reason  of 
their  elasticity,  hardness,  granular  construction,  and 
resistance  to  corrosion. 

And  if  proportionately  higher  steam  pressure  is 
carried,  so  that  the  relation  of  strength  to  strain  is 
the  same  as  in  iron  boilers,  the  repair  expenses  will 
still  be  decreased  by  reason  of  the  last-named  quali- 
ties of  steel. 

What  is  true  as  to  the  expenses  of  maintenance  is 
true  as  to  safety.  Kecent  discussions,  and  recently 
compiled  facts  on  the  subject  of  boiler  explosions, 
show  quite  conclusively  that  the  larger  proportion 
of  these  casualties  result  simply  from  the  want  of 
proper  strength  in  the  boiler. 

Kecent  experiments  on  standard  kinds  of  iron 
plates  showed  a mean  strength  of  49,215  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  while  experiments  made  at  the  same 
time  on  steel  plates  showed  a mean  strength  of  85,275 
pounds.  The  difference  in  the  weight  of  iron  and 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


167 


steel  plates  of  the  same  dimensions  is  not  great 
enough  to  be  of  practical  importance.  Other  things 
being  equal,  therefore,  a steel  boiler  is  73  per  cent, 
stronger  than  an  iron  boiler. 

PROPORTIONS  OP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILER, 
PROM  THE  BEST  MODERN  PRACTICE. 

Boiler  sheets,  best  cold-blast  charcoal  iron,  | 
inch  thick,  or  best  homogeneous  cast-steel,  inch 
thick,  or  horizontal  seams  and  junction  of  waist  in 
fire-box  double-riveted. 

Waist,  formed  of  two  sheets  rolled  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  fibre  of  the  iron  or  steel,  one  longitudinal 
seam  in  each,  located  above  the  water-line. 

All  longitudinal  seams  double  riveted;  curvi- 
linear seams  single  riveted. 

All  iron  sheets  i inch  thick  riveted  with  f inch 
rivets,  placed  2 inches  from  centre  to  centre. 

Steel  plates  inch  thick,  riveted  with  f inch 
rivets,  placed  inches  from  centre  to  centre. 

Extra  welt  pieces,  riveted  to  side  of  side  sheets, 
providing  double  thicknesses  of  metal  for  stud-bolts 
and  expansion  braces. 

WAGON-TOP  AND  STRAIGHT  BOILERS. 

The  wagon-top  possesses  some  very  important  ad 
vantages  over  the  straight  boiler,  especially  where 
impure  water  is  used,  as  it  affords  greater  steam 


168 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


WAGON-TOP  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILER. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


169 


room,  larger  water  surface  over  the  furnace,  and  de- 
creases the  liability  to  foam. 

It  is  easier  of  access  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
remove  the  mud  and  scale  from  the  crown -sheet,  or 
when  repairs  are  necessary  to  the'  numerous  braces 
over  the  furnace ; it  also  distributes  the  weight  to  a 
greater  advantage  on  the  drivers  than  does  the 
straight  boiler. 

The  cylindrical  part  can  be  smaller  in  diameter, 
and  consequently  lighter  than  the  straight  boiler, 
thereby  lessening  the  weight  upon  the  truck,  while 
the  furnace  end  will  have  greater  weight  and  will 
give  proportionately  more  adhesion  to  the  driving- 
wheels. 

The  straight  boiler  can  be  built  at  less  cost  than 
the  wagon- top,  and  is  subjected  to  the  fewer  unequal 
strains,  but  the  advantages  of  the  wagon-top  over 
the  straight  boiler  more  than  compensate  for  the 
above  defects. 

Wagon -top  boilers  carry  their  water  better  than 
the  straight  boilers,  because  they  have  a larger  body 
of  hot  water  in  which  to  neutralize  the  supply  of 
cold  water  from  the  pumps.  They  use  dryer  • steam, 
for  the  reason  that  the  dome  from  which  it  is  taken 
is  higher  than  in  the  straight  boiler,  hence  the  steam 
is  less  likely  to  become  saturated  by  the  surging  of 
the  water  in  the  boiler,  produced  by  the  galloping 
movement  of  the  engine. 

The  heating  surface  and  water  space  of  the  wagon- 
15 


170 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


top  is  greater  than  that  of  the  straight  boiler,  with 
about  the  same  amount  of  steam  room ; and,  in  as- 
cending high  grades,  the  wagon-top  possesses  great 
advantages  over  the  straight  boiler  on  account  of  the 
great  body  of  hot  water  carried.  It  is  generally  un- 
necessary to  pump  where  the  engine  is  performing 
her  hardest  labor. 

Two  domes  are  preferable  to  one  on  boilers  with 
limited  steam  space,  and  on  boilers  using  impure 
water,  provided  steam  is  taken  from  the  two  domes, 
as  there  is  less  variation  in  the  water  level,  and 
dryer  steam  is  obtained  in  the  cylinders. 

The  crown  or  upper  sheet  of  the  wagon-top  is  nec- 
essarily weaker  than  that  of  the  straight  boiler  on  ac- 
count of  its  large  radius.  This  is  often  still  further 
weakened  by  cutting  a hole  for  the  dome  in  it,  half  as 
large  as  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  of  the  boiler. 
A single-riveted  dome,  as  ordinarily  made,  does  not 
restore  much  above  half  the  strength  thus  taken 
away. 

THE  EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OP  LOCOMOTIVE 
BOILERS. 

The  quantity  of  water  evaporated  by  a boiler  in 
a given  time  depends  not  only  on  the  heating  surface, 
grate  surface,  and  draft  area,  but  also  upon  the  con- 
ducting powers  of  the  boiler  and  the  quantity  of  air 
which  passes  through  the  furnace  in  a given  time. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


171 


A locomotive  boiler,  for  instance,  burning  10 
pounds  of  coal  on  each  square  foot  of  grate-surface 
in  an  hour,  will  evaporate  about  9 pounds  of  water 
for  each  pound  of  coal  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions.  The  same  boiler  running  at  high  speed, 
and  burning  75  pounds  of  coal  on  each  square  foot 
of  grate-surface,  will  evaporate  7 pounds  of  water 
for  .each  pound  of  coal  burned. 

The  total  quantity  evaporated  in  an  hour  in  the 
first  case  will  be  10  X 9 = 90  pounds  of  water  for  each 
square  foot  of  grate-surface ; and  in  the  second  case, 
the  same  boiler,  under  a forced  draft,  will  evaporate 
75  X 7=525  pounds  of  water  in  one  hour.  Here  there 
is  a vast  difference  in  the  total  amount  of  evaporation  ; 
but  each  pound  of  coal,  under  the  forced  draft,  pro- 
duces less  steam,  in  the  proportion  of  7 to  9 pounds, 
so  that  while  the  economy  of  fuel  in  one  sense  is 
less,  the  total  amount  of  work  done  by  the  sama 
boiler  in  the  same  time  is  very  much  greater  with 
the  higher  rate  of  combustion. 

There  are  probably  no  phenomena  connected  with 
the  generation  and  utilization  of  steam  so  imper- 
fectly defined,  either  theoretically  or  practically,  at 
present,  as  those  connected  with  the  quantity  of  air 
which  passes  through  the  furnaces  of  boilers  under 
varying  conditions  of  draft. 

It  has  been  generally  assumed  from  the  experi- 
ments of  scientists  that  in  ordinary  practice  double 
the  amount  of  air  necessary  for  complete  combustion 


172 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


passes  through  the  furnace.  Hence  all  attempts  to 
reduce  the  laws  of  evaporation  of  boilers  to  fixed 
and  definite  rules  of  practice  for  all  conditions  of 
draft,  have  thus  far  been  based  on  assumptions  which 
have  no  definite  and  precise  foundation  in  practice. 

Experiments  are  greatly  needed  to  determine  the 
rate  of  combustion  for  varying  conditions  of  draft, 
as  well  as  the  quantity  of  air  actually  drawn  through 
the  furnaces  under  these  varying  rates  of  combustion. 
Such  determinations  are  necessary  in  order  to  estab- 
lish the  corresponding  temperatures  of  the  furnaces 
and  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion,  and  from 
these  the  transfer  of  heat  by  radiation  and  contact 
in  the  furnaces  and  flues  respectively. 

HEATING  SURFACE,  STEAM  ROOM,  AND  WATER 
SPACE  IN  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

The  importance  of  extent  in  the  surface  of  water, 
in  a boiler,  consists  in  the  facility  afforded  for  the 
ready  egress  of  the  steam,  as  evolved  by  the  heating 
surface.  The  most  satisfactory  results  are  obtained 
when  the  water  space  is  equal  to  the  heating  surface, 
and  any  deviations  from  these  proportions  are  always 
attended  with  some  disadvantage,  though  doubtless 
unappreciable  until  the  disproportion  arising  from 
the  increase  of  heating  surface  becomes  very  great. 

The  engine  whose  steaming  capacity  is  worked 
nearly  or  quite  to  its  maximum  while  hauling  trains 


HAITP-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  178 

upon  a level,  will  require  an  extra  strain  to  furnish 
the  steam  over  the  grade,  from  which  few  roads  can 
claim  an  absolute  immunity.  The  advantage  of  sur- 
plus steam  space  can  hardly  he  over-estimated,  espe- 
cially in  handling  heavy  trains. 

In  the  case  of  locomotives  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  fix  any  ratio  whatever  between  the  water  space 
and  heating  surface,  since  the  former,  of  necessity,  is 
limited,  and  every  additional  row  of  tubes,  to  increase 
the  heating  surface,  reduces  the  area  of  the  water 
space. 

So  with  the  steam  room,  to  secure  dryness  of  steam 
and  steadiness  of  action,  large  space  is  desirable ; but 
it  is  limited  by  the  same  considerations  that  restrict 
the  water  space  — though  the  evils  arising  from 
limited  steam  room  are  relieved,  to  a certain  extent, 
by  the  use  of  domes  and  the  dry  pipe. 

The  only  practical  rule  for  the  construction  of  loco- 
motive boilers,  with  respect  to  water  space  and  steam 
room,  seems  to  be,  for  a given  heating  surface,  to  se- 
cure as  large  a water  and  steam  space  as  possible  — 
the  larger  the  better  — within  the  limits  imposed  by 
restriction  in  the  size  of  the  boiler. 

Very  excellent  performances  have  been  obtained 
from  boilers  with  an  area  of  water  surface  -^3  that  of 
the  heating  surface,  and  a steam  room  about  one 
cubic  foot  to  one  square  foot  of  water  surface. 

15* 


174 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


HEATING  SURFACE  TO  GRATE  SURFACE  - IN 
STEAM  BOILERS. 


Diameter  of  cylinder,  , 

Stroke, 

Heating  surface  in  fire-box,  . 

‘‘  “ tubes,  . 

Total  heating  surface,  , 

Area  of  grate,  .... 
40.1  sq.  feet  of  heating  surface  to  1 


. 16  inches. 

. 24  ‘‘ 

. 100  square  feet. 
. 862  ‘‘  ‘‘ 

. 962  '' 

. 24  ‘‘  ‘‘ 

foot  of  grate  surface. 


Diameter  of  cylinder,  . . . .15  inches. 

Stroke, 22  “ 

Heating  surface  in  fire-box,  . . .85  square  feet. 

‘‘  “ tubes,  . . .645  “ 

Total  heating  surface,  . . . . 730 

Area  of  grate, 11  “ ‘‘ 

66.4  sq.  feet  of  heating  surface  to  1 sq.  foot  of  grate  surface. 


Diameter  of  cylinder,  . 
Stroke,  .... 
Heating  surface  in  fire-box, 
‘‘  tubes. 

Total  heating  surface,  . 
Area  of  grate, 

62  sq.  feet  of  heating  surface 


, . 18  inches. 

. 22  ‘‘ 

. . 116  square  feet. 

. 813  ‘‘ 

. 929 
. 15 

1 sq.  foot  of  grate  surface. 


Rule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  Locomotive 
Boilers. 

Multiply  the  length  of  the  sides  and  ends  of  the 
fire-box  by  the  height  in  inches ; multiply  the  length 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


175 


of  the  crown-sheet  by  its  width  in  inches.  Add  these 
products  together,  and  subtract  the  combined  area  of 
all  the  tubes  and  fire-door ; divide  the  remainder  by 
144,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  heating  surface  in 
the  fire-box  in  square  feet. 

Rule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  the  Tubes  of 
Locomotive  Boilers, 

Multiply  the  circumference  of  one  tube  in  inches 
by  its  length  in  inches ; multiply  that  product  by  the 
whole  number  of  tubes,  and  divide  this  product  by 
144,  which  will  give  the  heating  surface  in  the  tubes 
in  square  feet.  (See  Table  of  Superficial  Areas  of 
Tubes.) 

Rule  for  finding  the  Heating  Surface  in  Stationary 
Boilers, 

Multiply  the  length  of  the  boiler  in  inches  by  I 
the  circumference  in  inches  ; multiply  the  circumfer- 
ence of  all  the  tubes  or  flues  in  inches  by  their  length 
in  inches.  Add  these  two  products  and  the  areas  of 
the  ends  in  square  inches  together,  and  divide  by 
144.  The  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  heating  surface.  To  find  the  horse-power,  divide 
by  14  (14  square  feet  being  a fair  allowance  for  liorse- 
power  in  steam-boilers). 


176 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


PUNCHED  AND  DRILLED  HOLES  FOR  THE  SEAMS 
OP  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

Punching  rivet  holes,  according  to  Fairbairn’s  ex- 
periments, is  in  itself  a cause  of  weakness.  Not  only 
is  the  section  of  the  plate  in  the  line  of  strain  reduced 
by  the  area  of  the  holes,  but  the  plate  between  the 
holes  is  not  so  strong  per  square  inch  as  the  solid 
plate. 

The  excessive  strain  of  the  punch  appears  to  dis- 
turb the  molecular  arrangement  of  the  metal,  and  to 
start  fractures  which,  in  case  of  stay-bolts,  often  radiate 
in  every  direction,  allowing  corrosion  to  take*  place, 
and  ultimately  causing  the  bolts  to  pull  out  of  the 
plate. 

In  eight  experiments  by  Fairbairn,  the  highest 
strength  of  plate  experimented  upon  was  61,579 
pounds,  and  the  lowest  43,805  pounds  per  square  inch  ; 
but  with  the  same  plates  after  punching,  the  strength 
per  square  inch  varied  between  45,743  pounds  and 
36,606  pounds.  The  average  of  the  two  experiments, 
therefore,  showed  a loss  of  10,896  pounds  per  square 
inch,  due  to  the  jar  and  strain  of  punching,  in  addition 
to  the  loss  of  section  through  the  holes. 

In  the  process  of  punching,  through  the  ignorance 
or  neglect  of  workmen,  the  holes  do  not  come  right 
by  sometimes  half  their  diameter,  and  are  then  drifted 
until  the  sheet  is  fractured,  and  the  material  partly 
destroyed.  This  habit  cannot  be  too  much  repre- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


177 


bended,  and  the  use  of  drifts,  although  considered  in- 
dispensable by  many  good  boiler-makers,  is  productive 
of  great  evils. 

The  result  is  when  the  rivets  are  driven  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  make  them  fill  the  holes,  and  conse- 
quently an  undue  strain  will  come  upon  some  of  the 
rivets,  while  upon  others  there  will  be  very  little  strain. 
In  that  case  there  is  danger  of  shearing  ofi*  the  rivet 
upon  which  the  extra  strain  comes,  and  bringing  a 
strain  upon  the  adjoining  holes,  and  thus  starting  a 
rupture,  which  will  ultimately  result  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  boiler. 

The  danger  arising  from  this  cause  of  rupture  can 
be  easily  avoided  by  drilling,  as  the  holes  can  be  made 
to  match  exactly  if  the  plates  are  drilled  together, 
and  therefore  each  rivet  will  do  its  due  proportion  of 
the  work,  and  no  greater  strain  will  be  thrown  upon 
one  than  the  others. 

Recent  experiments  authorized  by  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard  establish  the 
fact  that  drilled  holes  for  boiler  seams  are  6 per  cent 
stronger  than  holes  that  are  punched. 

In  view  of  the  above  conclusions,  it  is  very  evident 
that  the  rivet  holes  for  all  longitudinal  seams  of 
steam  boilers  should  be  drilled.  The  curvilinear 
seams,  being  subjected  to  only  about  half  the  strain 
of  the  longitudinal,  might  be  punched. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that,  while  the  punched 
plate  is  weaker  than  the  drilled  plate,  the  rivets  in 
M 


178 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


the  punched  holes  do  not  shear  so  easily  as  those  in 
the  drilled  holes.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  edges 
of  the  drilled  holes  being  sharper  and  more  compact, 
and  consequently  more  capable  of  shearing  than  the 
edges  left  by  a punch. 

Welding  the  seams  of  locomotive  boilers,  if 
practical,  would  be  of  great  advantage,  since  the 
welded  joint  is  practically  twice  as  strong  as  the 
riveted  joint;  and  since  twice  as  much  steam  pressure 
is  exerted  on  the  longitudinal  seams  of  the  cylinder 
of  a boiler  as  on  its  circular  seams,  the  right  propor- 
tion of  strength  would  be  preserved  by  welding  the 
former  and  riveting  the  latter. 

The  following  advantages  would  be  acquired  by 
welding  the  seams  of  locomotive  boilers;  — 1st.  It 
would  cheapen  the  process  of  construction,  by  saving 
much  of  the  time  occupied  in  riveting,  and  all  that 
consumed  in  caulking.  2d.  The  full  strength  of  the 
plates  being  preserved,  a thinner  material  would  suf- 
fice, and,  as  a result,  less  dead  weight  would  have  to 
be  transported.  3d.  Double  the  pressure  could  be 
carried  without  increasing  the  weight  of  the  boiler. 
4th.  There  would  be  no  double  thickness  of  plate  to 
promote  unequal  expansion.  5th.  Where  the  greatest 
strain  would  occur,  there  would  be  no  laps  or  joints, 
and  consequently  there  would  be  no  leakage. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


179 


MACHINE  AND  HAND  RIVETING  FOR  LOCOMO^ 
TIVE  BOILERS. 

In  the  process  of  hand  riveting,  the  heads  are  rarely 
finished  till  the  iron  is  cool  enough  to  crystallize  or 
crack  under  the  head  by  the  heavy  blows  of  the 
hammer,  and  if  the  material  be  not  of  superior 
quality,  will  frequently  snap  off  under  rough  usage. 

Not  so  in  machine  riveting.  As  the  piston  is  not 
limited  in  its  movements,  it  will  follow  the  rivet 
home,  drawing  the  plates  well  together,  filling  the 
holes,  and  making  the  work  equally  good,  whether 
the  rivet  is  a half  inch  too  long  or  a half  inch  too 
short,  thus  accomplishing  what  no  workman  could 
possibly  do. 

As  the  riveting  is  done  with  a blow,  and  not  by 
squeezing,  the  iron  of  the  rivet  is  given  no  time  to 
cool,  by  contact  with  the  sheet,  before  it  is  forced 
into  every  crevice,  and  the  hole  completely  filled. 

The  heading  is  done  on  the  “capping”  system, 
thus  gathering  the  metal  together  instead  of  scatter- 
ing it,  as  is  the  case  with  the  hand  hammer. 

The  rivets  driven  by  the  Piston  machine  show  the 
hole  to  be  well  filled  all  around,  and  not  stretched  to 
any  appreciable  extent,  (not  more  so  than  in  hand 
riveting,)  while  the  rivet  and  plates  are  left  soft  and 
free  from  any  crystallization. 

The  shearing  strain  is  less  on  machine -riveted 
joints  than  on  those  riveted  by  hand,  on  account  of 


ISO 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


the  compactness  of  the  rivets  in  the  holes,  and  the 
great  friction  between  the  sheets  at  the  lap,  induced 
by  the  power  of  the  machine. 

Another  great  advantage  of  steam  riveting  is  its 
quickness  and  cheapness. 

COMPARATIVE  STRENGTH  OP  SINGLE  AND 
DOUBLE  RIVETED  BOILER  SEAMS. 

On  comparing  the  strength  of  plates  with  their 
riveted  joints,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  the 
sectional  areas,  taken  in  a line  through  the  rivet- 
holes  with  the  section  of  the  plates  themselves. 

It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  in  perforating  a line  of 
holes  along  the  edge  of  a plate,  we  must  reduce  its 
strength ; it  is  also  clear  that  the  plate  so  perforated 
will  be  to  the  plate  itself  nearly  as  the  areas  of  their 
respective  sections,  with  a small  deduction  for  the 
irregularities  of  the  pressure  of  the  rivets  upon  the 
plate;  or,  in  other  words,  the  joint  will  be  reduced 
in  strength  somewhat  more  than  in  the  ratio  of  its 
section  through  that  line  to  the  solid  section  of  the 
plate. 

It  is  also  evident  that  the  rivets  cannot  add  to  the 
strength  of  the  plates,  their  object  being  to  keep  the 
two  surfaces  of  the  lap  in  contact. 

When  this  great  deterioration  of  strength  at  the 
joint  is  taken  into  account,  it  cannot  but  be  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  in  structures  subjected  to 


HAND-jiOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


ISl 


such  violent  strains  as  boilers,  the  strongest  method 
of  riveting  should  be  adopted.  To  ascertain  this,  a 
long  series  of  experiments  were  undertaken  by  Mr. 
Fair  bairn. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  lap-joints, — those  said  to  be 
single  riveted  (Fig.  1),  and  those  which  are  double 
riveted  (Fig.  2).  At  first,  the  former  were  almost 
universally  employed,  but  tSe  greater  strength  of  the 
latter  has  since  led  to  their  general  adoption  for  all 
boilers  intended  to  sustain  a high  steam  pressure. 

A riveted  joint  generally  gives  way  either  by 
shearing  ofi*  the  rivets  in  the  middle  of  their  length, 
or  by  tearing  through  one  of  the  plates  in  the  line 
of  the  rivets. 

In  a perfect  joint,  the*  rivets  should  be  on  the 
point  of  shearing  just  as  the  plates  were  about  to 
tear;  but  in  practice,  the  rivets  are  usually  made 
slightly  too  strong.  Hence,  it  is  an  established  rule 
to  employ  a certain  number  of  rivets  per  lineal  foot. 

If  these  are  placed  in  a single  row,  the  rivet  holes 
so  nearly  approach  each  other  that  the  strength  of 
the  plates  is  much  reduced ; but  if  they  are  arranged 
in  two  lines,  a greater  number  may  be  used,  and  yet 
more  space  left  between  the  holes,  and  greater 
strength  and  stiffness  imparted  to  the  plates  at  the 
joint. 

Taking  the  value  of  the  plate  before  being  punched 
at  100,  by  punching  the  plate  loses  44  per  cent,  of 
its  strength,  and,  as  a result,  single-riveted  seams  are 
16 


182 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


equal  to  56  per  cent.,  and  double-riveted  seams  to  70 
per  cent,  of  the  original  strength  of  the  plate. 

It  has  been  shown  by  very  extensive  experiments 
at  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  and  also  at  the  Steven’s 
Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  that  double- 
riveted  seams  are  from  16  to  20  per  cent,  stronger 
than  single  riveted  seams  — the  material  and  work- 
manship being  the  same  in  both  cases. 


Fig.  1. 


1 

(d  Q 0 0 9 © 0 

0 1 

Fig. 


2.  I O Q Q Q o Q Q 9 


Taking  the  st^;pngth  of  the  plate  at  . . 100 

The  strength  of  the  double-riveted  joint  would 

then  be 70 

And  the  strength  of  the  single-riveted  joint 
would  be 56 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


183 


Rule  for  finding  safe  Worhing  Pressure  of  any  Boiler, 

Multiply  the  thickness  of  iron  by  .56,  if  single- 
riveted,  and  .70  if  double-riveted  ; multiply  this  pro- 
duct by  10,000  (safe  load) ; then  divide  this  last  pro- 
duct by  the  external  radius  (less  thickness  of  iron)  : 
the  quotient  will  be  the  safe  working  pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter  of  boiler 

Thickness  of  iron 

2)^ 

21  external  radius 
.375 

20.625  internal  radius. 

Thickness  of  iron  f = .375 

.56  single  riveted. 

2250 
1875 


.21000 

10000  safe  load. 

20.625)  2100  00000  ♦ 

101.81  pounds  safe 

working  pressure. 

In  the  above  rule  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
are  taken  as  the  tensile  strength  of  boiler  iron,  and 
one-fifth  of  that,  or  10,000,  as  the  safe  load.  Hence 
five  times  the  safe  working  pressure,  or  50,000 
pounds,  would  be  the  bursting  pressure. 


42  inches. 


184 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Rule  for  finding  the  Safe  Worhing  Pressure  of  Steel 
Boilers, 

Multiply  thickness  of  steel  by  .56  if  single  riv- 
eted, and  .70  if  double  riveted;  multiply  this  pro- 
duct by  16,000  (safe  load)  ; then  divide  this  last 
product  by  the  external  radius  (less  thickness  of 
steel) : the  quotient  will  be  the  safe  working  pres- 
sure in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

EXAMPLE. 


Diameter  of  boiler 44  inches. 

Thickness  of  steel J 


2)44 

22  external  radius. 
.25 


21.75  internal  radius. 

Thickness  of  steel  \ — .25 

.70  double  riveted. 

.175 

16000 

1050000 

^ 175 

21.75)2800.000 

128.73  safe  working 
pressure. 

80,000  being  taken,  in  the  above  rule,  as  the  ten- 
sile strength  of  steel,  and  one-fifth  of  that,  or  16,000, 
as  the  safe  load.  Hence  80,000  would  be  the  burst- 
ing pressure. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


185 


Rule  for  finding  the  Safe  External  Pressure  on  Boiler 
Flues, 

Multiply  the  square  of  the  thickness  of  the  iron 
by  the  constant  whole  number,  806,300  ; divide  this 
product  by  the  diameter  of  the  flue  in  inches ; di- 
vide the  quotient  by  the  length  of  the  flue  in  feet ; 
divide  this  quotient  by  3.  The  result  will  be  the 
safe  working  pressure. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter,  13  inches.  13  diameter. 

Thickness,  | of  an  inch.  10  length. 

I square  = 130 

3 

390 

A X 806,300=1^2®^  -j-  890  = 290.73  safe 

’ 64  24960 

external  pressure. 

When  pressure  is  exerted  within  a tube  or  cylin- 
der, the  tube  can  only  give  way  by  the  metal  being 
torn  asunder ; and  the  tendency  of  the  strain  is  to 
cause  the  tube  to  assume  the  true  cylindrical  form. 
— the  form  of  greatest  resistance. 

But  when  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  outside  of  a 
tube,  the  tendency  of  that  pressure  is  to  crush  or 
flatten  the  tube. 

It  is  a well-known  fact  that  iron  of  any  strength, 
when  formed  into  a tube,  will  bear  a much  greater 
strain  to  tear  it  asunder,  if  that  pressure  be  applied 
16* 


186 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


internally,  than  it  will  bear  without  crushing  in 
when  applied  externally. 

It  is  also  well  known  that  a thin  iron  hoop  will 
resist  a large  amount  of  tearing  force ; but  if  that 
same  hoop  be  placed  as  a prop  under  the  weight 
exerted  to  tear  it  apart,  it  would  be  flattened  and 
crushed  out  of  form. 

The  inner  tubes  of  boilers  are  nothing  more  or  less 
than  a series  of  props ; but  in  the  case  of  locomo- 
tive boilers  the  diameter  of  the  tubes  is  so  small 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  crush  them. 

DEFINITIONS  AS  APPLIED  TO  BOILERS  AND 
BOILER  MATERIALS. 

Tensile  strength  is  the  absolute  resistance  which 
a body  makes  to  being  torn  apart  by  two  forces  act- 
ing in  opposite  directions. 

Working  Strength. — The  term  “ working  strength’’ 
of  materials  is  a certain  reduction  made  in  the  esti- 
mate of  the  strength,  so  that  when  the  instrument 
or  machine  is  put  to  use  it  may  be  capable  of  resist- 
ing a greater  strain  than  it  is  expected  on  the  aver- 
age to  sustain. 

Safe  Working  Pressure,  or  Safe  Load. — The  safe 
working  pressure  of  steam  boilers  is  generally  taken 
as  \ of  the  bursting  pressure,  whatever  that  may  be. 

Elasticity  is  that  quality  which  enables  a body  or 
boiler  to  return  to  its  original  form  after  having  been 
distorted  or  stretched  by  some  extreme  force. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


187 


EXPLANATION  OP  TABLE  OP  BOILER  PRES- 
SURES ON  POLLOWING  PAGES. 

The  horizontal  column  on  top  of  the  page,  I,  00, 
0,  1,  etc.,  represents  the  number  of  the  steel. 

The  decimals,  in  the  second  horizontal  column, 
are  equal  to  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch  in  the 
third. 

The  vertical  column  on  the  left  hand  side  is  the 
diameters  in  inches.  All  the  other  columns  repre- 
sent pounds  pressure  per  square  inch. 

Example.  — 24 -inch  diameter,  | steel,  289.03 
pounds  per  square  inch. 


Rule  for  finding  the  Aggregate  Strain  caused  by  the 
Pressure  of  Steam  on  the  Shells  of  Locomotive  Boilers, 

Multiply  the  circumference  in  inches  by  the  length 
in  inches ; multiply  that  product  by  the  pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch.  The  result  will  be  the  ag- 
gregate pressure  on  the  shell  of  boiler. 


EXAMPLE. 


Diameter  of  boiler 

Circumference  of  boiler. 
Length  “ 

Pressure  “ 

131.9472  X 120  X 125 


42  inches. 

131.9472  “ 

10  feet,  or  120 

• 125  lbs. 

,979,208  pounds,  or  989  tons. 


2000 


188 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 

OF  SAFE  INTERNAL  PRESSURES  FOR  STEEL  BOILERS. 


Birmingham  Wire 
Gauge. 

3 

8 

00 

0 

1 

2 

Thickness  of  Steel. 

.375 

i 

.358 

1 Scant. 

.340 

ii 

.300 

A 

.284 

A 

External 

In. 

24 

lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 

289.03 

275.52 

261.26 

229.74 

217.19 

Diameter. 

26 

266.13 

263.73 

240.31 

211.65 

200.08 

28 

246.66 

235.13 

223.01 

196.20 

185.45 

SO 

229.74 

219.00 

207.80 

182.85 

172.99 

32 

215.04 

205.06 

194.15 

171.21 

161.91 

34 

202.10 

192.74 

182.85 

160.95 

152.22 

36 

190.63 

181.82 

172.50 

151.86 

143.23 

Longitudinal 

Seams, 

Single 

Eiveted. 

38 

180.40 

172.06 

163.25 

143.74 

135.96 

40 

171.21 

163.30 

154.95 

136.44 

129.06 

42 

162.90 

155.39 

147.45 

129.85 

122.83 

44 

155.37 

148.21 

140.66 

123.87 

117.17 

46 

148.50 

141.66 

134.43 

118.41 

112.01 

48 

142.22 

135.67 

128.75 

113.41 

107.29 

50 

136.44 

130.17 

123.53 

108.82 

100.03 

52 

131.12 

125.09 

118.72 

104.59 

98.95 

54 

126.19 

120.39 

114.26 

100.67 

95.24 

56 

121.62 

116.04 

110.13 

97.03 

91.81 

58 

117.37 

111.99 

106.29 

93.65 

88.61 

60 

113.41 

108.21 

102.71 

90.50 

85.63 

62 

109.71 

104.68 

99.36 

87.55 

82.89 

64 

106.24 

101.37 

96.22 

84.79 

80.23 

66 

10i98 

98.26 

93.27 

82.20 

77.77 

68 

99.92 

95.34 

90.32 

79.76 

75.47 

70 

97.03 

92.59 

87.89 

77.43 

73.29 

72 

94.31 

89.99 

85.42 

75.29 

71.24 

74 

91.74 

87.81 

83.09 

73.24 

69.30 

76 

89.30 

85.21 

80.89 

71.29 

67.46 

78 

86.99 

83.01 

78.79 

69.45 

65.72 

80 

84.79 

80.91 

76.81 

67.70 

64.07 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


189 


TABLE  — {Continued) 

OF  SAFE  INTERNAL  PRESSURES  FOR  STEEL  BOILERS. 


Birmingham 
Wire  Gauge. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Thickness 
of  Steel. 

.259 

iFull. 

.238 
\ Scant 

.220 

A 

.203 

AFull 

.180 

ASc’t. 

.166 

AFull 

In 

lbs.  per 

sq.  in. 

Extern  r1 

24 

197.63 

181.13 

167.33 

154.18 

136.44 

124.91 

EianneteT 

26 

182.13 

167.09 

154.24 

142.13 

125.80 

115.10 

28 

168.88 

154.95 

143.04 

131.83 

116.70 

106.85 

30 

157.42 

144.45 

133.36 

122.92 

108.82 

99.65 

32 

147.42 

135.29 

124.91 

115.14 

101.94 

93.36 

34 

138.60 

127.22 

117.47 

108.28 

95.88 

87.81 

36 

130.80 

120.05 

110.86 

102.20 

90.50 

82.89 

ScEms, 

38 

123.82 

113.65 

104.96 

96.76 

85.69 

78.49 

Single 

40 

117.55 

107.90 

99.65 

91.81 

81.37 

74.53 

Liveted. 

42 

111.40 

102.71 

94.85 

87.45 

77.46 

70.95 

44 

106.71 

97.99 

90.50 

83.44 

73.91 

67.70 

46 

102.04 

93.68 

86.53 

79.78 

70.67 

64.74 

48 

97.74 

89.74 

82.89 

76.43 

67.70 

62.02 

50 

93.07 

86.11 

79.54 

73.35 

64.97 

59.12 

52 

90.15 

82.77 

76.46 

70.50 

62.45 

57.22 

54 

86.78 

79.68 

73.60 

67.87 

60.13 

55.09 

56 

83.65 

76.09 

70.95 

65.43 

57.97 

53.11 

58 

80.74 

74.14 

68.49 

63.16 

55.96 

51.27 

60 

78.02 

71.62 

66.19 

61.07 

54.04 

49.55 

62 

75.49 

69.32 

64.04 

59.06 

52.32 

47.94 

64 

73.11 

67.13 

62.02 

57.20 

50.68 

46.43 

66 

70.88 

65.09 

60.13 

55.45 

49.14 

45.02 

68 

68.77 

63.16 

58.35 

53.52 

47.68 

43.69 

70 

66.79 

61.28 

56.67 

52.27 

46.31 

42.44 

72 

64.92 

59.76 

55.09 

50.81 

45.02 

41.25 

74' 

63.16 

58.00 

53.59 

49.43 

43.80 

40.13 

76 

61.48 

56.47 

52.17 

48.12 

42.64 

39.07 

78 

59.90 

55.01 

50.83 

46.88 

41.54 

38.061 

80 

58,39 

53.63 

49.55 

45.65 

40.50 

37.11 

190 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


TABLE  — {Contimied) 

OF  SAFE  INTERNAL  PRESSURES  FOR  STEEL  BOILERS. 


Birmingham  Wire 
Gauge. 

I 

00 

0 

1 

2 

Thi  ckness  of  Steel. 

.375 

1 

.358 
f Scant. 

.340 

.300 

A 

.284 

A 

External 

Diameter. 

In. 

24 

lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 

361.29 

344.40 

326.58 

287.23 

271.49 

26 

332.67 

317.24 

300.78 

264.56 

250.14 

28 

308.25 

293.91 

278.77 

237.95 

231.90 

30 

287.18 

273.48 

259.75 

228.57 

216.14 

3'2 

268.80 

256.34 

243.16 

214.01 

202.39 

Longitudinal 

34 

252.63 

240.93 

228.57 

201.19 

190.28 

Seams, 

36 

238.24 

227.27 

215.62 

189.83 

179.54 

Double 

38 

225.50 

215.08 

201.07 

179.67 

169.95 

Riveted. 

40 

214.01 

204.13 

193.69 

170.55 

161.28 

Curvilinear 

42 

203.63 

194.24 

184.31 

162.31 

153.54 

Seams, 

44 

194.21 

185.26 

175.80 

154.83 

146.47 

Single  , 

46 

181.21 

177.08 

168.04 

148.Ui 

140.02 

Riveted.’ 

48 

177.77 

169.55 

160.94 

141.77 

134.12 

50 

170.55 

162.71 

154.41 

136.03 

128.69 

52 

163.90 

156.40 

148.01 

130.73 

123.68 

54 

157.74 

150.49 

142.83 

125.84 

119.05 

56 

152.03 

145.05 

137.61 

121.29 

114.76 

58 

146.72 

139.99 

132.86 

117.01 

110.76 

60 

141.77 

135.26 

128.38 

113.13 

107.03 

62 

137.14 

130.85 

124.20 

109.44 

103.55 

64 

132.80 

126.74 

120.27 

105.99 

100.29 

66 

128.73 

122.83 

116.53 

102.75 

97.22 

68 

124.90 

119.18 

113.13 

99.70 

94.34 

70 

121.29 

115.74 

109.86 

96.85 

91.62 

72 

117.89 

112.49 

106.78 

94.11 

89.05 

74 

114.67 

109.42 

103.87 

91.55 

86.63 

76 

111.62 

106.51 

101.11 

89.12 

84.33 

78 

108.73 

103.76 

98.49 

86.72 

82.15 

80 

105.99 

101.14 

96.01 

84.63 

80.08 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


191 


‘J?  A B Xj  “Fi  — {Continued) 

OF  SAFE  INTERNAL  PRESSURES  FOR  STEEL  BOILERS. 


Birmingham 
Wire  Gauge. 

3 

•4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Thickness 

.259 

.238 

.220 

.203 

.180 

.166 

of  Steel. 

1 Full. 

J Scant 

s^iFull 

ASc’t. 

/jFull 

In. 

lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 

Extf^rnal 

24 

247.06 

226.62 

209.16 

192.72 

175.63 

156.14 

Diameter. 

26 

227.67 

208.87 

192.80 

177.66 

157.25 

143.98 

28 

211.10 

193.69 

178.80 

164.78 

145.87 

133.57 

30 

196.78 

180.57 

166.71 

153.65 

136.03 

124.57 

32 

184.28 

169.75 

156.14 

143.92 

127.43 

116.70 

T rfcn  rv 

34 

173.27 

159.06 

146.84 

135.35 

119.85 

109.77 

36 

163.50 

150.07 

138.58 

127.75 

113.13 

103.61 

38 

154.73 

142.07 

131.20 

120.95 

107.12 

98.11 

jLJk)  ti 

RivptGcl. 

40 

146.94 

134.88 

124.57 

114.84 

101.71 

93.16 

(In  rvi  1 

42 

139.85 

128.38 

118.57 

109.32 

96.82 

88.69 

\y  lA i V 1 i# 

Qpo  rn  « 

44 

133.42 

122.48 

113.13 

104.30 

92.39 

84.64 

Ssin  <t1  O 

46 

127.55 

117.10 

108.16 

99.73 

88.34 

80.92 

kjiiJgit:/ 
r?  1 

48 

122.18 

112.17 

103.61 

95.54 

84.63 

77.53 

XV  i V CLt'Xl. 

50 

117.24 

107.64 

99.43 

91.68 

81.22 

74.41 

52 

112.69 

103.43 

95.53 

88.13 

78.07 

71.53 

54 

108.47 

99.60 

92.00 

84.84 

75.16 

68.86 

56 

104.56 

96.01 

88.69 

81.79 

72.46 

66.39 

58 

100.92 

92.67 

85.61. 

78.95 

69.95 

64.08 

60 

97.53 

89.56 

22.74 

76.26 

67.60 

61.60 

62 

94.36 

86.65 

80.11 

73.17 

65.44 

59.93 

64 

91.38 

83.98 

77.53 

71.52 

63.35 

58.04 

66 

88.59 

81.36 

75.16 

69.32 

61.42 

56.28 

68 

85.97 

78.95 

72.94 

67.23 

59.60 

54.61 

70 

83.49 

76.68 

70.84 

65.34 

57.89 

53.05 

72 

81.16 

74.53 

68.86 

63.51 

56.28 

51.56 

74 

78.95 

72.50 

66.72 

61.78 

54.75 

50.16 

76 

76.86 

70.58 

65.21 

60.15 

53.30 

48.84 

78 

74.87 

68.76 

63.52 

58.60 

51.93 

47.58 

80 

72.99 

66.96 

61.94 

57.12 

50.62 

46.39 

192 


HAl^D-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


FURNACES  OP  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

The  furnace  is  that  part  of  the  boiler  in  which 
the  fuel  is  consumed,  the  heat  generated  and  partially 
absorbed,  the  remaining  absorption  taking  place  in 
the  flue-tubes,  which  convey  the  products  of  combus- 
tion from  the  fire,  through  the  water,  to  the  smoke- 
box. 

Since  the  very  general  use  of  coal  on  railroads  has 
been  adopted,  and  the  carrying  trade  of  the  country 
has  increased  to  such  an  enormous  extent,  it  has  be- 
come a matter  of  imperative  necessity  to  obtain  a 
material  for  the  construction  of  locomotive  furnaces 
that  combines  the  qualities  of  rapid  ‘‘steaming,” 
strength,  and  durability. 

The  relative  ineiits  of  iron  and  copper  for  the  fur- 
naces of  locomotive  boilers,  excepting  in  certain  pecu- 
liar cases,  are  evidently  quite  as  unsettled  as  any 
problem  in  locomotive  economy  can  be.  Were  it  not 
likely  that  both  are  to  be  superseded  by  steel,  the 
subject  would  merit  a more  thorough  investigation. 

The  comparative  want  of  homogeneity  in  iron  is 
both  a direct  and  an  indirect  cause  of  its  ultimate 
failure  as  a material  for  the  furnaces  of  locomo- 
tive boilers.  Another  disadvantage  is  its  inferior 
conducting  power.  This  affects  the  durability  of 
furnace-sheets  in  proportion  to  their  thickness,  as 
very  thick  iron  plates  give  way  sooner  than  those 
that  are  thinner,  because  the  heat  cannot  pass 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


193 


through  them  rapidly  enough  to  prevent  either  burn- 
ing or  excessive  expansion  on  the  fire  side. 

The  advantages  of  iron  over  copper  are  its  superior 
strength,  stifihess,  and  hardness.  Its  strength  and 
stifihess  allow  the  use  of  much  thinner  and  lighter 
plates  than  would  be  safe  in  case  of  copper,  since  the 
latter  metal,  however  thickly  stayed  it  may  be  in  fiat 
parts,  must  have  considerable  thickness  for  flanging 
and  riveting. 

Copper  does  not  materially  suffer  from  oxidation, 
or  any  other  chemical  action  to  which  it  is  incident 
in  the  furnace-sheets.  It  is  also  a better  conductor 
than  iron.  It  is  more  uniform  and  homogeneous 
than  iron,  and  will  bear  a greater  degree  of  irregular 
expansion  and  detraction. 

Copper  is  softer,  more  ductile,  and  hence  more 
easily  worked  than  iron.  It  may  be  stretched  to  a 
greater  extent  in  intricate  flanging,  and  may  be  rolled 
into  one  plate  of  several  thicknesses. 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  copper  are  its  extra  dead 
weight  and  first  cost,  and  its  comparative  weakness  — 
its  tensile  strength  being  but  about  35,800  pounds  to 
the  square  inch.  Copper  grows  constantly  weaker 
with  heat,  and  at  1100°  it  is  weaker  than  lead.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  8.9,  while  that  of  iron  is  7.7. 

The  thickness  of  copper  furnace  plates  is  generally 
} inch,  while  that  of  iron  is  /g.  The  copper  is  there- 
fore 85  per  cent,  heavier  than  iron. 

The  rates  of  expansion  of  iron  and  copper,  under 
17  N 


194 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


different  varieties  of  temperature,  differ  very  greatly. 
It  has  been  observed  that  a locomotive  boiler  ex- 
pands of  an  inch  in  a length  of  15  feet,  or,  say  1 
foot  in  1,000,  in  rising  from  an  ordinary  temperature 
of  62®  to  365®  — the  temperature  of  steam  at  150 
pounds  pressure  per  square  inch. 

According  to  well-known  facts,  copper  expands  by 
heat  half  as  much  again  as  iron,  and  taking  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  copper  of  the  fire-box  at 
twice  as  much  as  the  shell,  — an  assumption  which  it 
is  supposed  is  somewhat  below  the  fact,  — the  vertical 
expansion  of  the  fire-box  would  be,  upon  the  whole, 
three  times  as  much  as  that  of  the  shell ; and  the  dif- 
ference of  expansion  would  be  twice  that  of  iron,’  or, 
at  the  rate  of  1 foot  in  500.  On  a fire-box  5 feet  3 
inches  high,  the  difierence  of  expansion  would,  at 
this  rate,  amount  to  i of  an  inch. 

The  experience  of  many  of  our  leading  roads 
shows  that  the  average  life  or  wear  of  an  iron  fire- 
box, excepting  Lowmoor  iron,  seldom  exceeds  “ three 
years,”  and  often  fails  to  reach  eighteen  months,  (the 
plates  in  every  instance  being  carefully  selected  from 
the  standard  brands  of  responsible  manufacturers ;) 
many  sheets  are  blistered  on  account  of  poor  welding, 
others  are  “burned  out,”  and  in  some  instances  the 
sheets  seem  to  have  hardened,  becoming  so  brittle  as 
to  be  readily  broken  with  the  blow  of  a hammer. 

The  internal  corrosion  of  iron  for  fire  boxes  seems 
to  be  an  evil  for  which  neither  mechanical  science  nor 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


195 


chemistry  has  as  yet  suggested  a practical  remedy ; for 
water  merely  left  under  the  influence  of  the  atmos- 
phere, in  an  open  vessel,  will  cause  corrosion,  and 
how  much  more  likely  is  the  oxygen  of  the  water  to 
attack  the  iron  when  the  destructive  force  of  heat  is 
added  ? 

Besides  this,  water  is  rarely  found  pure.  Almost 
every  river,  spring,  and  well  contains  chemical  salts, 
some  of  them  of  a very  destructive  quality. 

Sulphur  is  one  of  those  minerals  which  experience 
has  shown  to  have  a disastrous  effect  upon  the  fur- 
naces of  locomotives.  There  is  a great  deal  of  sulphur 
in  some  qualities  of  coal,  and  the  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen gas,  disengaged  from  the  fuel,  readily  attacks  and 
quickly  destroys  the  quality  of  the  metal.  Thus  we 
have  both  external  and  internal  enemies  against  the 
durability  of  the  furnace  plates. 

Steel.  — Steel  seems  to  meet  the  demand  for  the  new 
material  for  the  furnaces  of  locomotives,  and  has  been 
able,  under  very  varying  circumstances,  within  the 
past  seven  years,  to  establish  its  superiority  over  iron 
or  copper. 

Steel  can  be  used  in  the  construction  of  furnaces 
thin  enough  to  transmit  the  heat  rapidly  from  the 
fire  to  the  water,  and  still  have  sufficient  tensile 
strength  to  withstand  the  working  pressure,  with  a 
surface  and  fibre  of  sufficient  density  to  resist  the 
destructive  action  of  foreign  substances  in  the  water 
and  fuel,  more  particularly  the  sulphur  in  bitumi- 
nous coal. 


196 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVEc 


A few  years  ago  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany, under  the  direction  and  immediate  supervision 
of  Mr.  Cassutt,  the  superintendent  of  motive  power 
and  machinery,  inaugurated  and  successfully  con- 
tinued an  elaborate  system  of  experiments  upon  all 
the  important  details  connected  with  railroad  motive 
power. 

In  the  matter  of  steel  plates  they  embraced  a 
larger  amount  of  experience  and  information  than 
any  other  railway  company  upon  this  continent. 

After  a careful  test  of  the  best  qualities  of  iron 
and  copper  that  could  be  procured  in  this  country 
or  in  Europe,  they  were  convinced  that,  upon  their 
road  at  least,  the  durability  of  either  iron  or  copper 
was  not  sufficient  to  warrant  its  continued  use. 

On  the  contrary,  their  experiments  in  the  use  of 
steel,  at  first  in  fire-boxes  only,  were  in  the  highest 
degree  successful — so  much  so,  that  in  the  construc- 
tion of  their  fire-boxes  it  is  now  used  entirely,  and  to 
a great  extent  in  the  general  construction  of  the 
boiler. 

The  high  degree  of  tensile  strength  exhibited  by 
steel  plates,  ranging  from  75,000  to  100,000  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  allows  the  use,  with  safety,  of 
this  material  thinner  than  either  iron  or  copper,  thus 
reducing  the  weight,  and  rendering  the  difference  in 
first  cost  of  material  an  item  of  less  magnitude  than 
is  usually  supposed. 

Then  the  density  and  perfect  homogeneity  of  steel 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


197 


render  it  nearly  impervious  to  the  action  of  sulphur 
and  other  foreign  elements  in  coal,  which  have 
proved  so  destructive  to  iron  and  copper,  while  its 
ductility  and  “ flanging  ” qualities  are  only  equalled 
by  the  best  copper  plates. 

Another  noticeable  feature  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  steel  plates  for  the  flre-boxes  of  locomotives  is 
the  utter  absence  of  the  soot  and  cinder  ordinarily 
found  clinging  to  the  sides  of  iron  and  copper  flre- 
boxes;  and  as  these  are,  as  is  well  known,  non- 
conductors of  heat,  they  must  greatly  interfere  with 
the  steaming  qualities  of  either  of  the  latter  mate- 
rials. 

A great  amount  of  thought  and  mechanical  talent 
have  been  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  fur- 
naces of  coal-burning  locomotives  within  the  past  ten- 
years,  but  as  yet  with  only  partial  success,  for  though 
various  devices  have  been  introduced  for  the  purpose 
of  rendering  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  more  perfect, 
yet  the  results  obtained  have  not  been  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  warrant  the  adoption  of  any  of  them 
into  general  use. 

The  long,  shallow  fire-box  and  water-grate,  with 
open  stack,  seem  to  be  inseparable  adjuncts  to  all 
locomotives  consuming  anthracite  coal,  and  this,  with 
a few  modifications,  may  be  taken  as  the  rule  wher- 
ever this  class  of  engines  is  employed, 

But  with  engines  consuming  bituminous  coal  the 
questions  to  be  considered,  in  connection  with  suc- 
17* 


J98 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


cessful  combustion,  are  numerous  and  important ; for 
while  under  ordinary  circumstances  a good  quality 
of  bituminous  coal  may  be  consumed  in  an  ordinary 
wood-burning  furnace,  yet  to  consume  the  different 
classes  of  this  coal,  successfully,  requires  a mechani- 
cal construction  of  fire-box  difierent  from  that  em- 
ployed in  burning  wood  or  anthracite  coal. 

PROPORTIONS  OP  FIRE-BOXES,  FROM  THE 
BEST  MODERN  PRACTICE. 

Materials. — Best  homogeneous  cast-steel. 

Side  and  back  sheets,  inch  thick. 

Crown-sheets,  I inch  thick. 

Flue-sheets,  i inch  thick. 

Water  space,  3 inches  sides  and  back,  4 inches 
front. 

Stay-bolts,  f of  an  inch  diameter,  screwed  and 
riveted  to  sheets,  inches  from  centre  to  centre. 

Crown-bars,  made  of  two  pieces  of  wrought-iron 
4}  inches  by  f of  an  inch,  set  4^  inches  from  centre 
to  centre,  and  secured  by  bolts  fitted  to  taper  holes 
in  crown-sheets,  with  head  on  underside  of  bolt  and 
nut  on  top,  bearing  on  crown-bar. 

Crown-sheet  braced  to  dome  and  outside  shell. 

Fire-door  opening  formed  by  flanging  and  riveting 
together  the  outer  and  inner  sheets. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


199 


STRENGTH  OF  STAYED  SURFACES  IN  TEE 
FURNACES  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

That  part  of  the  boiler  which  forms  the  sides  of 
the  fire-box  is  necessarily  exposed  to  a vast  pressure 
from  the  steam  which  is  above  it,  and  some  expedient 
has  to  be  devised  to  prevent  the  metal  at  this  part 
from  bulging  out. 

The  two  portions  of  the  boiler  — that  is,  the  fire- 
plates  forming  the  sides  of  the  fire-box  and  the  plates 
forming  the  external  shell  of  the  boiler  — Sive. stayed 
together  by  bolts,  that  are  tapped  through  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  and  riveted  on  each  end. 

Stay-bolts  are  placed  at  a distance  of  inches 
from  centre  to  centre  all  over  the  surfaces  of  the  fire- 
box, and  thus  the  expansion  or  bulging  of  one  side 
is  prevented  by  the  stiffness  or  rigidity  of  the  other. 
Stay-bolts  for  the  fire-boxes  of  locomotives  are  gen- 
erally i inch  diameter. 

Now,  in  an  arrangement  of  this  kind,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  pay  considerable  attention  to  the  tensile 
strength  of  the  stay-bolts  employed  for  the  above 
purpose  — since  the  question  of  the  ultimate  strength 
of  this  part  of  the  boiler  is  now  transferred  to  them, 
it  being  impossible  that  the  boiler  plates  should  give 
way  (except  through  corrosion)  unless  the  stay-bolts 
break  in  the  first  instance. 

Accordingly,  all  the  experiments  that  have  been 
made  by  way  of  test  of  the  strength  of  stay-bolts, 


200 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


possess  the  greatest  interest  for  the  practical  engineer. 
Mr.  Fairbairn’s  experiments  are  particularly  valu- 
able. He  constructed  two  flat  boxes,  22  inches 
square.  The  top  and  bottom  plates  of  one  were 
formed  of  i inch  copper,  and  of  the  other  f inch 
iron.  There  was  a 2i  inch  water  space  to  each,  with 
II  inch  iron  stays  screwed  into  the  plates  and  riveted 
on  the  ends.  In  the  flrst  box  the  stays  were  placed 
five  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  and  the  two  boxes 
tested  by  hydraulic  pressure. 

In  the  copper  box  the  sides  commenced  to  bulge 
out  at  450  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch ; and 
at  810  pounds  pressure  the  square  inch  the  box 
bursts,  by  drawing  the  head  of  one  of  the  stays 
through  the  copper  plate. 

In  the  second  box  the  stays  were  placed  at  4 inch 
centres;  the  bulging  commenced  at  515  pounds  pres- 
sure to  the  square  inch.  The  pressure  was  continu- 
ally augmented  up  to  1600  pounds.  The  bulging 
between  the  rivets  at  that  pressure  was  one-third  of 
an  inch  ; but  still  no  part  of  the  iron  gave  way.  At 
1625  pounds  pressure  the  box  burst,  and  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  in  the  first  experiment, — one  of  the 
stays  drawing  through  the  iron  plate,  and  stripping 
the  thread  in  the  plate. 

These  experiments  prove  a number  of  facts  of 
great  value  and  importance  to  the  locomotive  en- 
gineer. In  the  first  place,  it  shows  that  with  regard 
to  iron  stay-bolts,  their  tensile  strength  is  at  least 
equal  to  the  grip  of  the  plate. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


201 


The  grip  of  the  copper  bolt  is  evidently  less.  As 
each  stay,  in  the  first  case,  bore  the  pressure  on  an 
area  of  5x5=25  square  inches,  and  in  the  second, 
on  an  area  of  4x4  = 16  square  inches,  the  total 
strains  borne  by  each  stay  were,  for  the  first,  815  X 25 = 
9 tons  on  each  stay ; and  for  the  second,  1625  X 16= 
11 J tons  on  each  stay.  These  strains  were  less,  how- 
ever, than  the  tensile  strength  of  the  stays,  whicl 
would  be  about  14  tons. 

The  properly  stayed  fire-box  is  the  strongest  par 
of  a locomotive  boiler  when  kept  in  good  repair. 

STAY-BOLTS. 

A question  here  arises  in  regard  to  the  superiority 
of  iron  or  copper  for  stay-bolts ; and  if  it  were  merely 
a matter  of  strength,  there  could  be  no  doubt  that 
iron  is  the  better  material.  But  it  is  not  a mere  matter 
of  strength — it  is  the  durability  of  the  metal  that  the 
engineer  is  most  concerned  with,  and  from  this  point 
of  view  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  copper  is  superior 
to  iron  for  this  purpose.  * 

There  are  two  great  evils  connected  with  iron 
bolts:  (1)  they  crystallize;  (2)  they  corrode.  In 
either  case  they  are  likely  to  snap  in  halves  under 
any  extraordinary  pressure  — that  is,  at  the  very 
moment  when  their  services  are  most  needed. 

Copper  has  neither  of  these  faults.  It  has  ex- 
treme tenacity  up  to  a certain  point  of  its  working, 


202 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


and  tlie  hot  water  does  not  corrode  it  in  the  least. 
Some  engineers  have  tried  the  effect  of  placing  iron 
stays  in  two  or  three  of  the  upper  rows,  and  copper 
in  the  lower  rows,  where  the  corrosive  influence  of 
the  water  is  more  powerful. 

But  this  is  opposed  to  all  practical  experience,  for 
the  upper  bolts  are  always  found  to  break  most  fre- 
quently, from  the  superior  expansion  of  the  inner 
plate ; hence,  the  material  that  will  endure  the  most 
bending  should  be  employed  for  them. 

The  total  working  strength  of  copper  and  iron 
stay-bolts,  f inch  diameter  at  the  base  of  the  thread, 
screwed  and  riveted  into  i inch  copper  plates,  taken 
at  ^ of  the  breaking  strain,  is,  for  copper,  3200 
pounds,  and  for  iron  4800  pounds.  For  i inch  bolts, 
in  f inch  iron  plates,  5600  pounds. 

Steel  stay-bolts  have  been  occasionally  employed 
in  the  furnaces  of  locomotive  boilers  with  good  effect. 
When  they  have  a spring  temper  they  seem  to  stand 
the  effect  of  contraction  and  expansion  better  than 
any  other  material,  since  their  small  diameter  and 
grekt  elasticity  would  permit  them  to  conform  to  all 
moderate  variations  in  the  boiler  caused  by  ordinary 
degrees  of  temperature. 

The  safe  working  strength  of  copper,  iron,  and 
steel  stay-bolts  may  be  estimated  at  about  ^ of  the 
ultimate  strength ; but  if  the  screws  are  cut  within 
the  original  diameter  of  the  bolt,  jq  of  the  working 
strength  must  be  deducted. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


203 


CROWN-BARS. 

The  use  of  crown-bars  is  to  strengthen  the  crown- 
sheet  of  the  fire-box;  and  they  should  be  tested 
transversely,  in  order  that  their  stiffness  may  be 
fully  proved. 

It  has  been  found,  in  practice,  that  crown-bars  f 
of  an  inch  thick,  41  inches  deep,  II  inches  from 
centre  to  centre,  3 feet  6 inches  long,  with  their  ends 
resting  on  the  upper  edges  of  the  side  furnace-sheets, 
would  sustain  a load  of  15  tons  in  the  centre  without 
permanent  set. 

TUBES. 

There  seems  to  be  a great  difference  of  opinion 
among  railway  mechanics  with  reference  to  the  best 
material  for  tubes,  as  copper  and  brass,  which  had 
been  extensively  employed  for  wood,  seemed  to  fail 
under  the  mechanical  action  of  fiying  particles  of 
anthracite  coal. 

The  use  of  tubes  is  to  conduct  heat  to  the  sur- 
rounding water  at  the  least  possible  cost  — the  items 
of  cost  being,  1st,  waste  heat ; 2d,  maintenance  of 
tubes.  Granted,  that  the  best  conducting  tube  is  the 
least  durable,  and  that  the  poorest  conducting  tube 
is  the  most  durable,  the  question  is  — by  avoiding 
which  species  of  expense  shall  the  highest  economy 
be  attained  ? 

Steel  tubes,  for  coal-burning  engines  at  least,  seem 
to  afford  better  results  than  any  other  material  now 


204 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


in  use,  as  they  can  be  made  lighter,  and  possess 
steaming  qualities  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  either 
copper  or  brass,  while  the  nature  of  the  material 
affords  the  requisite  degree  of  surface  resistance  to 
the  chemical  action  of  the  water  in  the  boiler. 

Next  to  steel,  for  coal-burning  engines,  iron,  un- 
doubtedly, gives  the  best  results.  The  great  diffi- 
culty heretofore  experienced  in  setting  them,  and 
afterwards  keeping  them  tight,  is  now  permanently 
obviated  by  what  is  known  as  the  “ safe  end  ” — a 
copper  thimble  placed  on  the  end  of  the  flue,  in  such 
manner  that  when  the  flue  is  expanded  the  copper 
readily  adapts  itself  to  the  surface  of  the  flue,  and 
thus  forms  a packing,  or  set,  in  the  flue-sheets. 

Wearing  of  Tubes. — Wearing  generally  occurs 
at  the  fire-box  end ; the  flange  by  which  the  tube  is 
set  is  often  burned  or  cut  through. 

Resistance  of  Tubes. — The  resistance  of  tubes  is 
manifestly  due  entirely  to  their  hardness ; the  mate- 
rials then  range  in  the  following  order  — steel,  iron, 
brass,  copper. 

Burning  of  Tubes. — The  burning  of  tubes  is  en- 
tirely due  to  a contracted  water  space,  bad  circula 
tion  between  them,  and  the  deposit  of  scale  adhering 
to  the  outer  surface  caused  by  impurities  in  the  water. 

When  brass  and  copper  tubes  become  over-heated, 
the  elongation  of  the  metal  causes  them  to  buckle 
and  sag,  and  as  a result,  the  water-space  being  very 
much  diminished,  and  the  tubes  perhaps  touching 
each  other,  they  are  soon  burned  out. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


205 


Breaking  of  Tubes. — The  breaking  of  tubes  gen- 
erally occurs  close  to  the  fire-box  tube-shell  and  the 
shell  of  the  boiler.  Copper  will  stand  this  action 
better  than  the  harder  materials,  but  it  has  more  to 
stand  by  reason  of  its  larger  limit  of  expansion. 

Steel  Tubes. — Steel  tubes,  however,  possess  all 
the  good  qualities  of  copper,  due  to  homogeneous- 
ness, without  its  great  limit  of  expansion,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  strength  of  iron. 

Sagging  of  Tubes.  — The  sagging  of  tubes  is  de- 
pendent on  the  softness  of  the  metal  and  on  the 
length  and  diameter  of  the  tube  and  its  consequent 
stifihess. 

Leakage  of  Tubes.  — The  leakage  of  tubes  is  the 
result  of  defective  setting,  unequal  expansion  or 
overheating. 

Corrosion  of  Tubes. — Copper  and  brass  are  quite 
superior  to  iron,  resisting  both  the  action  of  the 
water  and  the  sulphur  in  coal.  Steel  approaches  the 
excellence  of  copper  in  both  these  particulars. 

Length  and  Diameter  of  Tubes. — Tubes  2 inches 
in  diameter  and  11  feet  long,  placed  in  vertical  rows 
f of  an  inch  apart,  give  most  satisfactory  results, 
as  such  an  arrangement  admits  of  an  easy  circula- 
tion of  the  water  and  free  escape  of  steam  from  the 
heating  surface  to  the  steam  dome,  besides  giving 
ready  access  to  the  mud  in  its  passage  from  the  water 
to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler. 

18 


206 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 

OF  SEPEBFICIAL  AREAS  OF  EXTERNAL  SURFACES  OP 

TUBES  OF  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  AND  DIAMETERS  IN 

SQUARE  FEET. 

These  tables  are  designed  to  facilitate  the  calcula- 
tion of  the  heating  surface  of  the  tubes  in  tubular 
boilers,  and  are  adapted  for  tubes  of  various  lengths, 
from  8 to  13  feet,  advancing  by  inches,  and  of 
various  diameters,  from  If  to  2}  inches,  advancing 
by  i of  an  inch. 

Explanation. — The  large  figures  at  the  end  of 
the  horizontal  lines  give  the  length  of  tubes  in  feet, 
and  the  small  intermediate  figures  on  the  same  line 
give  the  additional  inches.  The  vertical  column  on 
the  left  gives  the  diameters  of  the  tubes  in  inches. 
The  numbers  in  the  tables  represent  the  superficial 
area  of  our  tube  in  square  feet,  and  decimal  parts 
thereof,  for  the  different  lengths  and  diameters  of 
tubes  required. 

Example.  — Eequired,  the  heating  surface  of  163 
tubes.  If  inches  diameter  and  11  feet  10  inches 
long.  Thus,  having  found  the  lengths  (11  feet  10 
inches)  in  the  above-named  horizontal  line  of  figures, 
trace  downwards  to  the  line  opposite  the  diameter 
(If)  in  the  vertical  column  on  the  left,  where  will 
be  found  the  number  5.421,  being  the  area  of  the 
^tube,  and  which,  being  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
tubes  (163),  gives  the  total  area  of  883,623  square 
feet,  thus  reducing  the  whole  process  to  a simple 
matter  of  multiplication. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


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207 


SUPERFICIAL  AREAS  OF  EXTERNAL  SURFACES  OF  TUBES  OF  VARIOUS 
LENGTHS  AND  DIAMETERS  IN  SQUARE  FEET. 


208 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


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SUPEEFICIAL  AEEAS  OF  EXTEENAL  SUEFACES  OF  TUBES  OF  VAEIOUS 
LENGTHS  AND  DIAMETEES  IN  SQUAEE  FEET. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


209 


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SUPEEFICIAL  AEEAS  OF  EXTEENAL  SUEFACES  OF  TUBES  OF  VAEIOUS 
LENGTHS  AND  DIAMETEES  IN  SQUAEE  FEET. 


210 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


COMBUSTION  OP  FUEL  IN  LOCOMOTIVE 
FURNACES. 

In  the  locomotive  furnace  the  main  loss  is  sus- 
tained  by  the  immense  velocity  in  gases  when  the  en- 
gine is  under  heavy  strain.  A nozzle  that  will  give, 
under  ordinary  strain  of  engine,  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults, will,  under  a heavy  strain,  tear  out  the  fire,  or 
reduce  the  temperature  in  gases  to  a degree  where 
ignition  is  impossible.  This  velocity  might,  to  some 
extent,  be  reduced  by  giving  a larger  grate-surface ; 
but  in  locomotives  this  cannot  be  done  beyond  a cer- 
tain limit,  without  inconvenience  and  loss  in  other 
parts  of  the  machinery. 

A locomotive  under  9,600  pounds  strain  — even  if 
the  influx  of  the  air  was  well  regulated  — would  still 
have  a velocity  in  gases  equal  to  72  feet  per  second, 
or  that  of  a storm.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  the 
small  available  grate-surface,  which  forces  the  cur- 
rent to  accept  a high  velocity  to  fill  the  vacuum 
made  in  a given  time. 

This  may  be  in  part  avoided  by  hollow  stay-bolts ; 
but,  while  their  use  is  beneficial  for  the  above-men- 
tioned purposes,  they  are  productive  of  an  evil  almost 
as  bad  — that  of  receiving  at  times  too  much  oxygen. 

Different  devices  have  been  resorted  to,  such  as 
brick  arches,  water-tables,  and  deflectors,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  creating  a recoil  of  the  currents  and  increas- 
ing the  friction,  which  may  react  on  the  grate-sur- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


211 


face,  thereby  lessening  the  influx  of  air,  and  keeping 
the  gases  in  contact  with  the  fire  for  a longer  period, 
in  order  to  render  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  more 
•perfect.  ’ 

But  even  these  means  are  but  imperfect,  since  the 
current  is  never  constant,  and  the  square  surface  of 
the  nozzle  always  so,  which  must  create  imperfec- 
tions. The  only  radical  mode  of  obviating  these  de- 
ficiencies, therefore,  seems  to  be  to  regulate  the  influx 
of  air  according  to  requirements,  which  may  be  ef- 
fected by  the  exercise  of  care  and  good  judgment. 

Light  passenger  engines  always  consume  the  fuel 
to  a better  advantage  than  the  heavy  freight  engines, 
because  their  grate-surface  is  better  proportioned  to 
the  work  done,  and  in  a light  strain  the  proportion 
between  the  steam  expelled  and  the  air  inhaled  is 
nearer  the  correct  one.  Besides,  there  being  no 
large  quantity  of  air  inhaled,  there  cannot  be  a very 
great  velocity  in  the  current ; consequently,  the  con- 
tact between  the  oxygen  and  the  luminous  gases  is 
continued  through  the  time  necessary  for  complete 
combustion. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  air  entering  through 
the  grate  is  twice,  and  in  many  cases  three  times, 
greater  than  the  weight  of  the  discharged  steam, 
while  the  proportions  between  the  steam  discharged 
and  the  air  inhaled  ought  in  all  cases  to  be  about 
the  same.  The  following  rules,  if  carried  out,  would 
give  most  satisfactory  results : 


212 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


First.  — The  difference  in  pounds  between  the 
steam  exhausted  and  the  air  inhaled  ought  to  be,  in 
all  cases,  about  the  same. 

Second.  — The  bulk  of  fuel  on  the  grate  should 
always  be  in  proportion  to  the  fuel  consumed. 

Third.  — - The  grate-surface  ought  to  be  as  large  as 
possible,  to  prevent  a great  velocity  of  current. 

Fourth.  — The  escape  of  gases  from  the  furnace 
should  be  retarded,  in  order  to  prolong  the  contact 
between  the  oxygen  and  the  gases,  under  a very  high 
temperature. 

Fifth.  — It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  too 
much  draft,  though  not  so  inconvenient,  is  just  as 
injurious  as  not  enough. 


MURDOCK’S  LOCOMOTIVE— 1784. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE- 


213 


The  above  cut  represents  the  smoke-box  of  the  locomo- 
tive-boiler. A,  A,  arch-pipes ; B,  double-cones ; D,  pet- 
ticoat-pipe ; E,  E,  E,  E,  tubes ; C,  C,  exhaust-pots. 


SMOKE-BOX. 

The  diameter  of  the  smoke-box  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  boiler,  and  its  length, 
from  the  face  of  the  flue-sheet  to  the  inside  of  the 
front  door,  about  11  times  the  length  of  the  stroke 
of  the  engine,  as  the  size  of  the  smoke-box  has  much 
to  do  with  the  perfect  combustion  of  the  fuel.  It  is 


214 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


well  known  to  engineers  that  the  smaller  the  smoke- 
box  the  duller  the  fire ; and,  on  the  other  band,  with 
a large  smoke-box  a large  quantity  of  ai’r  will  be 
admitted  to  the  fire,  and  the  combustion  of  the  fuel 
rendered  more  perfect. 

The  smoke-box  acts  upon  the  fire  as  an  air-vessel 
upon  a pump — the  larger  it  is,  within  certain  limits, 
the  more  benefit  will  be  derived  from  the  fuel,  as  the 
exhaust  does  not  jerk  the  fire  or  carry  it  out  before  it 
is  consumed,  as  is  generally  the  case  when  the  smoke 
box  is  small,  t 


SMOKE-STACKS. 

None  of  the  forms  of  smoke-stacks  now  in  use  will 
answer  for  all  classes  of  locomotives,  consequently 
the  style  of  smoke-stack  best  suited  to  any  engine, 
or  class  of  engines,  will  depend  entirely  on  the  char- 
acter of  fuel  to  be  consumed.  For  wood-burning 
engines  the  “bonnet”  stack,  having  a diameter  of 
from  5 to  feet  at  the  top,  gives  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results,  as  this  form  of  stack  insures  a better 
draft,  other  things  being  equal,  than  any  other  pat- 
tern now  in  use.  There  may  be  other  stacks  that 
more  efiectually  prevent  the  emission  of  sparks,  but 
it  is  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  the  draft. 

A large  diameter  at  the  height  of  the  cone,  and  a 
large  area  of  wire-netting,  are  necessary  to  insure 
good  draft  and  prevent  sparks  being  ejected  in  ob- 
jectionable quantities. 


HAITD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


215 


The  inside  pipe  of  the  stack  should  be  as  high  as 
practicable,  and  from  4 to  diameters  in  length ; 
the  bottom,  where  it  joins  the  smoke-box,  ought  to 
be  bell-mouthed  for  6 or  6 inches  up.  The  next  18 
inches  the  pipe  might  be  straight,  and,  as  a rule,  about 
one  inch  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  cylinders ; 
from  that  to  the  top  the  pipe  should  enlarge  at  the 
rate  of  1 inch  to  the  foot,  the  inside  of  the  pipe  to  be 
as  smooth  as  possible. 

This  form  of  pipe  offers  the  least  resistance  to  the 
ascending  column  of  steam,  and  produces  a better 
draft  than  any  other. 

Smoke-stacks  for  engines  burning  soft  coal  require 
a different  construction  at  the  top  from  those  burn- 
ing wood,  as  they  require  less  area  around  the  cone 
ihan  wood-burners. 

A stack  that  will  clean  itself  well — that  is,  permit 
no  lodgment  of  sparks  or  cinders  in  it  or  in  the 
smoke-box  — and  at  the  same  time  throw  no  fire  or 
large  cinders,  and  has  a good  draft,  will  answer  best 
for  burning  soft  coal. 

The  particular  form  for  the  top  of  the  stack  is  not 
very  material,  yet  that  known  as  the  diamond-shape 
top,  with  an  annular  space  between  the  outer  edges 
of  the  cone  and  wire  netting  of  from  3 to  4 inches, 
gives  very  satisfactory  results,  as  by  this  arrange- 
ment the  gumming  of  the  netting  is  avoided. 

For  engines  burning  anthracite  coal,  the  plain  open 
stack,  without  cone  or  netting,  gives  the  best  satis- 
faction. 


216 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


EXHAUST-NOZZLE. 

Double  exhaust-nozzles  are  in  all  cases  preferable 
to  single,  on  account  of  the  back  pressure  produced 
by  the  single  nozzle  in  the  opposite  cylinder  at  the 
moment  and  during  the  continuance  of  the  exhaust. 

The  top  of  the  exhaust-nozzles  should  be  as  high 
as  the  third  or  fourth  row  of  tubes  from  the  bottom, 
and  they  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  and  so 
directed  that  the  exhaust  steam  will  strike  the  centre 
of  the  cone  at  the  top  of  the  stack. 

Petticoat-  or  Clearance-pipe. — The  petticoat- 
pipe,  in  good  practice,  is  generally  about  I the  diame- 
ter of  the  inside  pipe  of  the  stack,  and  to  give  satis- 
factory results,  the  top  of  the  pipe  ought  to  be  about 
three  inches  below  the  top  of  the  smoke-box,  and  the 
bottom  the  same  height,  or  even  with  the  top  of  the 
exhaust-nozzles. 

Grate-bars.  — For  wood-  and  soft  coal-burning 
locomotives  the  old  ordinary  grate,  with  about  J inch 
opening,  gives  very  satisfactory  results.  For  anthra- 
cite coal-burners  the  water-grate  or  water-tubes  are 
extensively  used,  and  seem  to  answer  a very  good 
purpose. 

Ash-pans. — The  ash-pans  for  wood-  and  coal- 
burning  engines  should  be  as  nearly  air-tight  as  pos- 
sible when  the  dampers  are  closed. 

For  wood-burning  engines  the  depth  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  grates  to  the  ash-pan  ought  to  be  about  9 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


217 


inches;  for  soft  coal-burners,  not  less  than  10  inches; 
and  for  anthracite  coal-burners  12  to  13,  or  even  14 
inches. 

Dampers  should  be  used  front  and  back,  and  when 
shut,  stand  at  an  angle  of  about  35°  from  perpendic- 
ular ; the  bottom  of  the  ash-pan  should  be  rounded 
up  or  raised  about  two  inches  at  each  end. 

Side  doors  are  very  convenient  on  coal-burners 
for  cleaning  the  pans  out. 

SAJETT-VALVES. 

The  form  and  construction  of  this  indispensable 
adjunct  to  the  steam-boiler  are  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance, not  only  for  the  preservation  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, which  would,  in  the  absence  of  this  means  of 
safety,  be  constantly  jeopardized,  but  also  to  secure 
the  boiler  from  undue  strains  and  ultimate  destruc- 
tion. 

Increasing  the  pressure  to  a dangerous  degree,  in  a 
steam-boiler,  would  be  impossible  if  the  safety-valve 
were  what  it  is  supposed  to  be  — a perfect  means  for 
liberating  all  the  steam  which  a boiler  may  produce 
with  the  fires  in  full  blast,  and  all  other  means  for 
the  escape  of  steam  closed.  Until  such  a safety- 
valve  shall  be  devised  and  adopted  into  general  use, 
safety  from  gradually  increasing  pressure  must  de- 
pend, to  a certain  extent,  on  the  watchfulness  of  the 
engineer. 

19 


218 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


It  is  supposed  that  a gradually  increasing  pressure 
can  never  take  place  if  the  safety-valve  is  in  good 
working  order,  and  if  it  have  proper  proportions. 
Upon  this  assumption,  universally  acquiesced  in, 
when  there  is  no  accountable  cause,  explosions  are 
attributed  to  the  ‘‘  sticking’’  of  the  valves,  or  to  “ bent 
valve-stems,”  or  “ inoperative  ” valve-springs.  As  the 
safety-valve  is  the  sole  reliance  in  case  of  neglect  or 
inattention  on  the  part  of  the  engineer,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  examine  its  mode  of  working  closely. 

The  safety-valve  is  designed  on  the  assumption 
that  it  will  rise  from  its  seat  under  the  statical  pres- 
sure in  the  boiler,  when  this  pressure  exceeds  the  ex- 
terior pressure  on  the  valve,  and  that  it  will  remain 
off  its  seat  sufficiently  far  to  permit  all  the  steam 
which  the  boiler  can  produce  to  escape  around  the 
edges  of  the  valve. 

The  ordinary  safety-valve,  as  at  present  constructed, 
consists  of  a disc,  which  closes  the  outlet  of  a short 
pipe  leading  from  the  boiler.  The  area  of  the  disc, 
or  diameter  of  the  valve,  is  usually  determined  from 
theoretical  considerations,  based  on  the  velocity  of 
the  flow,  or  upon  the  results  of  experiments  made  to 
ascertain  the  area  of  orifice  necessary  for  the  flow  of 
all  steam  a boiler  can  produce  under  a given  pres- 
sure. The  fact  is  recognized  by  engineers  and  con- 
structors that  the  real  diameters  of  safety-valves  must 
be  greater  than  the  theoretical  orifices,  because  com- 
mon observation  shows  that  the  valves  do  not  rise 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


219 


appreciably  from  tbeir  seats ; and  to  make  the  outlet 
around  the  edges  of  the  valve  equal  in  area  to  the 
pipe,  the  valve  should  rise  in  all  cases  J its  diameter. 

Every  locomotive  boiler  should  have  two  safety- 
valves,  held  in  place  by  springs  of  sufficient  elasticity 
to  permit  a lift  of  valve  from  its  seat  to  give  the  re- 
quired area  of  opening  for  the  escape  of  all  the 
steam  such  boiler  will  make  without  a greater  in- 
crease of  pressure  per  square  inch  than  five  pounds 
over  that  at  which  the  valve  commences  to  rise. 

With  the  lift  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  at  a pres- 
sure of  130  pounds  per  square  inch,  two  three-inch 
valves  would  permit  the  escape  of  12  cubic  feet  of 
steam  per  second,  or  nearly  double  the  quantity  that 
a boiler  having  900  square  feet  of  heating  surface 
will  supply. 

The  springs  connecting  the  safety-valves  from 
levers  with  the  boiler  should  be  of  sufficient  length 
to  permit  a lift  of  the  valves  from  their  seats  of  at 
least  of  an  inch  with  no  greater  addition  of  pres- 
sure than  five  pounds  per  square  inch  above  the 
maximum  pressure. 

The  valve-seats  of  safety-valves  should  in  all 
ases  be  made  of  brass,  and  the  bearing  or  mitre  on 
the  valve  face  should  not  exceed  of  an  inch. 

Every  engineer  should  know  that  the  safety-valves 
on  his  boiler  are  at  all  times  .in  good  working  order, 
and  any  engineer  that  would  screw  or  weigh  down 
his  safety-valves  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 


220 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


pressure  beyond  that  which  he  had  reason  to  believe 
was  safe,  ought  to  be  disqualified  from  ever  taking 
charge  of  an  engine  again. 

TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  RISE  OF  THE  SAFETY-VALVES,  UNDER  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  DIFFERENT  PRESSURES.  ^‘tHE  RISE  OF  THE 
VALVES  IN  PARTS  OP  AN  INCH.” 


12  lbs. 

20  lbs. 

35  lbs. 

45  lbs. 

50  lbs. 

■h  inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

A iiich. 

60  lbs. 

70  lbs. 

80  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

jV  inch. 

1 

xJi  inch. 

yjy  inch. 

jij  inch. 

Or,  taking  average  values,  the  rise  for  pressures 
from  10  to  40  pounds  is  4^0  of  an  inch  ; from  40  to  70 
pounds  and  from  70  to  90  pounds,  of  an  inch. 

These  results  show  that  the  rise  diminishes  rapidly 
as  the  pressure  increases  — a result  which  is  indicated 
by  theory.  The  very  small  rise  for  pressure  from  70 
to  90  pounds,  of  an  inch,  is  remarkable. 

Safety-valves  are  only  a means  of  safety  when  well 
constructed  and  well  cared  for. 

Tests  of  safety-valves  are  very  much  needed,  and 
should  receive  special  attention  from  master  mechan- 
ics, engineers,  and  steam  users  in  general ; but  tests, 
to  be  of  any  value,  must  be  practical,  and  should  be 
done  by  subjecting  them  to  actual  use  on  steam-boil- 
ers that  were  doing  regular  duty. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


221 


STEAM-GAUGES. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  boiler  explosions  take 
place  from  different  causes,  and  prominent  among 
these  causes  are  weakness,  faulty  construction,  and 
over-pressure.  It  is  to  provide  against  the  latter 
contingency  that  a good  gauge  is  a real  necessity 
wherever  steam  is  employed ; but  it  is  also  a well- 
known  fact  that  about  one-half  the  gauges  in  use  are 
either  notoriously  unreliable  or  completely  worthless. 

Imperfectly  graduated  in  the  first  place,  and  liable 
to  become  still  further  out  of  the  way  after  a little 
use,  many  of  them  are  really  sources  of  danger 
instead  of  safety ; for  their  erroneous  indications 
create  a feeling  of  safety  which  sets  the  vigilance  of 
the  engineer  to  sleep.  Even  gauges  bearing  the 
most  satisfactory  test,  when  new,  are  oftentimes  found 
to  be  utterly  unreliable  when  placed  upon  boilers 
and  subjected  to  the  conditions  to  which  all  gauges 
are  subjected  when  in  use. 

Steam-gauges,  like  safety-valves,  are  only  a means 
of  safety  when  properly  constructed,  accurately  grad- 
uated, and  well  cared  for. 

A great  many  worthless  steam-gauges  are  palmed 
off  on  steam  users,  the  only  proof  of  their  efficiency 
being  that  they  worked  well  under  some  experimen- 
tal test ; but  when  subjected  to  the  conditions  of 
constant  use,  they  have  proved  utterly  worthless. 
Practical  tests  of  steam-gauges  are  very  much  needed. 

19* 


222 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  CARE  AND  MAN- 
AGEMENT OP  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. 

After  heavy  rains  the  water  should  be  frequently 
run  out  of  the  boiler,  in  order  to  prevent  the  deposit 
of  sediment  on  the  sheets  and  flues. 

The  deposits  of  scale  and  earthy  matter  should  be 
removed  from  the  crown-sheet  as  often  as  possible,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  crown-sheet  from  being  burnt  or 
sprung. 

Every  locomotive  boiler  should  be  provided  with 
mud  plugs  on  the  sides  of  the  shell  on  a level  with 
the  crown-sheet,  for  the  purpose  of  washing  out  the 
mud  with  a hose  from  between  the  crown-bars.  This 
could  be  done  without  weakening  the  boiler  by  rivet- 
ing an  extra  piece  on  the  inside  of  the  shell  in  the 
line  of  the  holes. 

The  accumulations  of  mud  should  be  removed 
from  the  water-legs  of  the  furnace  and  the  barrel  of 
the  boiler  as  often  as  convenient,  and  the  spaces 
thoroughly  washed  out  with  a hose. 

Boilers  should  never  be  blown  out  while  hot,  as 
the  plates,  flues,  and  braces  retain  sufficient  heat  to 
bake  the  deposits  of  mud  into  a hard  scale,  that  be- 
comes firmly  attached  to  their  surface. 

The  boiler  should  always  be  allowed  to  stand  for 
several  hours,  or  until  it  is  cold,  before  the  w^ter  is 
run  out ; the  deposit  of  mud  and  scale  will  then  be 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


223 


found  to  be  quite  soft,  and  can  be  easily  washed  out 
with  a hose  from  all  accessible  places. 

There  seems  to  be  an  impression  in  the  minds  of 
some  engineers  that  blowing  out  a boiler  under  pres- 
sure has  a tendency  to  remove  the  deposits  of  mud 
from  the  boiler,  but  experience  has  shown  this  to  be 
a very  grave  mistake,  as  already  shown. 

Boilers  should  never  be  filled  with  cold  water 
while  hot,  as  it  has  a very  injurious  effect,  causing 
severe  contraction  of  the  seams  and  stays,  which  very 
often  induces  fracture  of  stays  or  leakage  in  the 
seams  and  tubes. 

Many  boilers,  well  constructed  and  of  good  mate- 
rial, have  been  ruined  by  being  blown  out  under  a 
high  pressure  of  steam,  and  then  suddenly  filled  with 
cold  water. 

Fractures,  strained  joints,  and  leaky  tubes  are  gen- 
erally attributed  to  poor  workmanship  and  poor  ma- 
terial, when  the  mischief  generally  arises  from  the 
boiler  being  blown  out  under  high  steam,  or  filled 
with  cold  water  while  hot. 

The  tubes  of  boilers  being  generally  of  thinner 
material  than  the  shell,  consequently  cool  and  con- 
tract sooner ; for  this  reason  the  boiler  should  never 
be  filled  with  cold  water  while  the  tubes  are  hot. 

If  it  is  expected  that  the  boiler  will  last  to  a good 
old  age,  ana  render  faithful  service,  it  must  be  well 
cared  for. 


224 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


FIREMEN  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  general  custom  on  nearly  all  the  principal 
railroads  in  this  country  is  to  promote  their  firemen 
to  the  position  of  engineers,  as  it  has  been  found,  by 
experience,  that  locomotive  engineers  promoted  from 
firemen  were  more  reliable  than  machinists  taken 
from  the  shops,  unless  the  machinist  has  had  sufficient 
experience  as  a fireman  to  make  him  well  acquainted 
with  the  duties  of  engineers;  and  with  this  object  in 
view,  particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  selection  of 
young  men  for  firemen,  and  none  but  smart,  active 
young  men  of  good  moral  character  and  perfectly 
sober  habits  will  receive  any  encouragement. 

After  firing  for  about  three  years,  if  they  give  evi- 
dence of  sufiicient  capacity  and  carefulness,  they  are 
generally  placed  in  the  repair  shop  or  round-house 
for  one  year,  to  enable  them  to  learn  the  use  of  tools, 
but  more  particularly  to  make  them  acquainted  and 
familiar  with  the  construction  of  the  locomotive  en- 
gine and  the  manner  of  taking  its  machinery  apart 
and  putting  it  together  again. 

If,  at  the  end  of  the  candidate’s  fourth  year,  he 
has  conducted  himself  properly,  and  given  sufiicient 
evidence  of  his  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  a lo- 
comotive engine  and  its  management  to  make  a good 
engineer,  he  is  promoted  to  a third-class  engineer,  with 
pay  of  twenty  dollars  per  month  less  than  that  of  a 
first-class  engineer ; but  if  not  found  capable,  he  is 
dropped. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


225 


After  one  year’s  trial  as  third-class,  if  he  still  gives 
evidence  of  capacity  and  carefulness,  he  is  advanced 
one  grade  higher,  or  to  the  position  of  second-class, 
with  pay  of  ten  dollars  per  month  less  than  a first- 
class  engineer. 

If,  after  the  expiration  of  one  year  as  a second- 
class  engineer,  he  is  qualified  in  everyway  for  a first- 
class  engineer,  he  is  advanced  to  that  grade  with  first- 
class  pay ; but  if  not  found  competent  in  every  par- 
ticular, he  is  considered  out  of  the  regular  order  of 
promotion. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  it  is  perfectly  obvious 
that  every  fireman  who  aspires  to  the  position  of  a lo- 
comotive engineer  ought  to  inform  himself,  as  far  as 
possible,  on  all  questions  connected  with  the  care  and 
management  of  the  locomotive  engine  and  boiler.  He 
should  improve  every  opportunity,  make  good  use 
of  leisure  hours,  connect  himself  with  some  public 
library,  read  scientific  books,  especially  those  treat- 
ing on  subjects  connected  with  his  trade  or  calling, 
and  endeavor  to  gain  all  possible  information  on  all 
subjects  connected  with  his  business  from  the  most 
reliable  and  practical  sources. 

He  should  ask  questions  relating  to  his  business 
of  persons  that  he  has  reason  to  believe  are  competent 
to  inform  him,  as  he  can  do  so  without  any  sacrifice 
of  feeling,  being  aware  that  he  is  not  expected  to 
know  much  about  the  duties  of  his  calling  at  this 
stage  of  his  apprenticeship. 

P 


22G 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


He  must  remember  that  if  the  profession  or  call- 
ing of  the  locomotive  engineer  is  to  be  dignified,  the 
men  that  follow  it  for  a trade  must  also  be  elevated 
— that  it  is  not  the  work  which  gives  dignity  to 
the  man,  it  is  the  character  of  the  man  that  gives 
dignity  to  the  vocation  he  pursues ; that  it  is  only 
when  one  class  of  mechanics  becomes  equal  to  another 
in  respect  to  intelligence,  culture,  and  refinement, 
that  their  calling  becomes  equally  dignified ; and, 
also,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  mind  is  the  first  step 
towards  eminence  in  any  trade  or  profession. 

He  must  understand  that  men’s  labor  is  like  mer- 
chandise,— the  price  is  regulated,  to  a certain  extent, 
by  the  demand,  and  if  there  are  difierent  qualities 
of  the  same  article  in  the  market,  and  purchasers  are 
expected  to  pay  as  much  for  the  inferior  article  as 
for  the  good  one,  they  will  very  naturally  take  the  best. 

Every  fireman  who  goes  on  a locomotive  with  the 
intention  of  becoming  an  engineer  should  do  so  with 
the  determination  of  making  himself,  if  possible,  a 
first-class  engineer.  But  we  know  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible for  all  to  do  this,  as  there  is  among  firemen,  as 
in  all  other  trades  and  professions,  a great  many 
men  who  are  totally  unfit  for  the  business  — men 
that  perhaps  would  succeed,  to  a certain  extent,  in 
some  other  pursuit,  but  who  become  a failure,  and 
often  a reproach  on  the  profession  they  have  adopted, 
simply  for  the  reason  that  they  made  a mistake  in 
the  selection  of  a suitable  trade. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


227 


No  fireman  should  make  up  his  mind  to  become 
an  engineer  unless  satisfied  that  he  possesses  the  fol- 
lowing natural  qualifications : 

1.  The  power  of  long  continued  and  unwearied  at- 
tention, that  he  may  be  able  to  watch  the  road  and 
his  engine  without  the  slightest  relaxation,  during  the 
longest  possible  trip. 

2.  Endurance,  both  of  body  and  mind,  which  in 
case  of  accidents  and  delays  is  often  tested  to  the 
utmost.  No  man  easily  worn  out  has  any  business 
with  runoing  a locomotive. 

3.  Sharpness  of  sight,  power  of  distinguishing 
colors  of  signals,  soundness  of  hearing,  and  gener- 
ally that  perfection  of  the  senses  which  enables  one 
to  observe  accurately  objects  at  a distance. 

4.  Energy,  decision,  and  presence  of  mind,  the  ab- 
sence of  which  in  a runner  will  probably  cause  him 
to  lose  a train,  or  a life,  or  many  lives  in  the  course 
of  his  service. 

5.  Akin  to  the  above  is  alertness  of  mind,  which 
makes  men  alive  to  the  slightest  occurrences  within 
reach  of  their  senses,  and  is  often  strikingly  devel- 
oped in  hunters  and  men  having  charge  of  sentries 
and  outposts  in  time  of  war.  All  the  senses  can  be 
cultivated,  sight  excepted. 


228 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


FIRING. 

In  estimating  the  relative  merits  of  different  loco- 
motives, it  is  always  assumed  that  the  fuel  is 
burned  under  conditions  with  which  the  men  who 
supply  coal  to  the  furnaces  have  nothing  whatever 
to  do  — in  short,  that  any  man  who  can  throw  coals 
on  a fire  and  keep  his  bars  clean  must  be  as  good  as 
any  other  man  who  can  do,  apparently,  the  same 
thing.  But  this  conclusion  is  totally  erroneous,  as 
it  is  within  the  experience  of  every  engineer  that 
many  engines  now  in  operation  throughout  the  coun- 
try consume  from  two  to  three  times  as  much  fuel, 
per  horse-power,  as  is  required  in  those  that  are  more 
perfectly  constructed  and  economically  managed. 

In  every  case,  a large  proportion  of  this  waste 
occurs  in  the  furnace ; and  while  some  of  it  is  una- 
voidable, much  of  it  is  due  to  bad  firing,  and  this 
bad  firing  is  as  often  due  to  the  want  of  knowledge 
as  to  carelessness  and  inattention. 

When  the  coal  is  in  large  lumps,  so  that  the  spaces 
between  them  are  of  considerable  size,  the  depth  may 
be  greater  than  where  the  coal  is  small  and  lies 
compactly ; and  where  the  draft  is  very  strong,  so 
that  the  air  passes  with  great  velocity  over  or  through 
the  fuel,  there  is  not  time  for  the  carbonic  acid  to 
combine  with  and  carry  off  the  coal,  and  consequently 
a bed  of  greater  depth  may  with  propriety  be  used. 
Of  course  the  depth  in  all  cases  must  depend,  to  a 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


229 


certain  extent,  to  the  judgment  of  the  fireman ; and 
to  avoid  unnecessary  waste,  he  should  see  that  the 
coal  is  evenly  spread  over  the  grate,  and  that  there 
are  no  spaces  through  which  streams  of  air  pass 
without  coming  in  contact  with  the  fuel. 

Masses  of  clinkers  are  sometimes  carelessly  allowed 
to  accumulate  on  the  grate ; these,  being  incombusti- 
ble, allow  air  to  pass  over  them  without  producing 
any  result ; and  when  this  air  mixes  with  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion,  it  lowers  the  general  temperature, 
and  so  detracts  from  the  efficiency  of  the  fuel.  All 
clinker  and  incombustible  matter  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  coal  should  be  spread 
evenly  and  compactly  — no  thin  places  on  one  part 
of  the  grate  and  large  heaps  on  another. 

Then,  as  the  air  costs  nothing,  while  fuel  is  quite 
expensive,  we  must  be  very  careful  that  none  of  the 
latter  is  allowed  to  pass  out  of  the  furnace  without 
being  fully  neutralized.  But  while  it  would  be  un- 
fair to  expect  ordinary  engineers  or  firemen  to  have 
a minute  acquaintance  with  the  higher  departments 
of  chemistry,  it  is  not  too  much  to  ask  that  they 
should  have  a moderate  familiarity  with  the  princi- 
ples of  combustion,  and  other  facts  and  laws  relating 
to  heat,  as  well  as  such  ordinary  mechanical  problems 
and  theorems  as  are  necessary  to  the  performance 
of  their  duties  in  a safe,  practical,  and  economical 
manner. 

20 


230 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


RUE’S  "LITTLE  GIANT"  INJECTOR. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


231 


THE  INJECTOR. 

Of  all  the  inventions  of  the  mechanic  and  the 
scientist,  nothing  seemed  to  the  uneducated  to  ap- 
proximate so  nearly  to  perpetual  motion  as  the 
instrument  now  in  general  use  as  a boiler-feeder  on 
locomotives  and  stationary  engines,  and  known  as 
the  injector,  and  which,  from  common  use,  no  longer 
excites  the  wonder  even  of  those  who  do  not  under- 
stand its  mode  of  operation. 

It  consists  of  a slender  tube,  called  the  steam-tube, 
through  which  steam  from  the  boiler  passes  to  another 
or  inner  tube,  called  the  receiving-tube.  The  latter 
tube  conducts  a current  of  water  from  a pipe  into 
the  body  of  the  injector.  Opposite  the  mouth  of  this 
second  tube,  and  detached  from  it,  is  a third  fixed 
tube,  called  the  delivery-tube.  This  tube  is  open  at 
the  end  facing  the  water-supply,  and  leading  from 
the  injector  to  the  boiler. 

The  action  of  the  injector  is  that  which  Venturi, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  designated 
as  the  “ lateral  action  of  fluids,’’  and,  having  been 
investigated  by  Dr.  Young,  in  1805,  was  proposed 
by  Nicholson,  in  1806,  for  forcing  water.  The  action 
is  identical  to  that  of  the  steam-jet,  or  blower-pipe, 
in  the  chimney  of  the  locomotive.  The  principle  is 
that  steam,  being  admitted  to  the  inner  tube  of  the 
injector,  enters  the  mouth  of  a combining-tube,  in 
the  form  of  a jet,  near  the  top  of  the  inlet  water- 


232 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


pipe.  If  the  level  of  the  water  be  below  th6  injector, 
the  escaping  jet  of  steam,  by  its  superficial  action  (or 
friction)  upon  the  air  around  it,  forms  a partial 
vacuum  in  the  combining-tube  and  inlet-pipe,  and 
the  water  then  rises  in  virtue  of  the  external  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere.  Once  risen  to  the  jet,  the  water 
is  acted  upon  by  the  steam  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  air  had  been,  seized  and  acted  upon  in  first  form- 
ing the  partial  vacuum  into  which  the  water  rose. 

Gifiard’s  discovery  was  that  the  motion  imparted 
by  a jet  of  steam  to  a surrounding  column  of  water 
was  sufficient  to  force  it  into  the  boiler  from  which 
the  steam  was  taken,  and,  indeed,  into  a boiler  work- 
ing at  even  a higher  pressure.  But  the  most  im- 
portant improvement  ever  heretofore  made  in  the 
injector  was  made  in  1868,  by  Samuel  Rue,  by  which 
the  injector,  with  steam  of  from  80  to  90  pounds’ 
pressure,  is  capable  of  forcing  water  against  a pressure 
of  from  400  to  450  pounds  per  square  inch. 

This  extraordinary  accumulation  of  power  may  be 
explained  as  follows : The  velocity  with  which  steam 
— say  at  60  pounds’  pressure  to  the  square  inch — 
flows  into  the  atmosphere  is  about  1700  feet  per  sec- 
ond. Now  suppose  that  steam  is  issuing,  with  the 
full  velocity  due  to  the  pressure  in  the  boiler,  through 
a pipe  an  inch  in  area,  the  steam  is  condensed  into 
water,  at  the  nozzle  of  the  injector,  without  suffering 
any  change  in  its  velocity.  From  this  cause  its  bulk 
will  be  reduced,  say  1,000,  and,  therefore,  its  area 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


233 


of  cross-section  — the  velocity  being  constant  — will 
experience  a similar  reduction.  It  will  then  be  able 
to  enter  the  boiler  again  by  an  orifice 
of  that  by  which  it  escaped.  Now  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  total  force  expended  by  the  steam  through 
the  pipe,  on  the  area  of  an  inch,  in  expelling  the 
steam  jet,  was  concentrated  upon  the  area  jo^o'o^^ 
of  an  inch,  and,  therefore,  was  greatly  superior  to 
the  .opposing  pressure  exerted  upon  the  diminished 
area. 


RUE’S  "LITTLE  GIANT"  LETTER  "B"  INJECTOR. 


How  to  put  on  Letter Injector. — Put  the 

injector  in  a horizontal  position  above  the  foot-board, 
and  within  easy  reach  of  the  engineer,  using  as  short 
a length  of  pipe  for  “ steam and  deliverance  to 
the  boiler  ” as  possible.  Put  an  ordinary  globe  or 
20* 


23 i HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

angle-valve  on  the  steam  supply-pipe,  for  starting, 
etc.,  taking  the  steam  from  the  highest  part  of  the 
boiler,  and  attaching  it  to  the  swivel  marked  “steam.’’ 
Attach  the  water  supply-pipe  to  the  swivel  marked 
“ water,”  putting  an  ordinary  water-cock  on  the 
supply-pipe  near  to  the  injector.  A good  supply  of 
water  must  be  had,  and  if  taken  from  a tank,  give 
it  a good  fall.  The  mouth  of  the  pipe  should  be 
enlarged,  and  a screen  with  small  meshes  placed  over 
it  to  keep  out  dirt;  if  the  supply-pipe  be  over  ten 
feet  in  length,  or  if  the  water  come  from  a hydrant, 
or  any  source  that  makes  a pressure,  and  the  supply 
is  not  at  a regular  pressure,  the  pipe  should  be  one 
size  larger  than  the  swivel  marked  “water,”  which 
can  be  done  by  putting  on  a reducer.  At  this  point 
turn  on  your  steam  and  water,  and  let  them  flow 
through  the  injector,  to  see  if  the  pipes  and  injectors 
are  free  from  dirt.  Then  attach  the  “ delivery-pipe  ” 
to  the  swivel  marked  “ to  boiler.” 

Method  of  Working  Letter  Injector. — Turn 
on  the  water,  and,  when  it  flows  from  the  overflow, 
turn  on  the  steam,  slowly  at  first,  until  it  catches  the 
water,  then  turn  on  full  head,  and  push  the  lever  M 
slowly  either  forwards  or  backwards, as  seems  requisite, 
until  neither  steam  nor  water  shows  at  the  overflow. 
Failure  to  work  will  always  show  at  the  overflow, 
and  when  the  point  is,ascertained  at  which  the  lever 
is  to  be  set  for  the  steam  pressure  to  be  carried,  it 
can  be  regulated,  and  then  left  to  stand  at  that  posi- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


235 


tion  when  tlie  steam  and  water  are  shut  off.  The 
lever  is  only  used  to  regulate  the  proportionate 
amounts  of  water  and  steam. 

But  when  water  is  to  be  lifted  by  this  injector,  a 
small  steam-pipe  leading  from  the  boiler  and  furnished 
with  a valve  that  opens  with  a quick  motion,  is  at- 
tached to  the  swivel  “ P,”  by  means  of  which  a steam- 
jet  is  thrown  into  the  tube  “ R,’’  and  the  water  lifted. 
But  at  this  point  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  tube 
in  order  to  ascertain  if  the  suction  is  good,  or  if  it 
lifts  the  water  readily,  and  if  so,  the  steam  supply- 
pipe  can  be  attached  to  the  swivel  marked  “ steam,’’ 
and  the  injector  cleared  of  any  dirt  that  may  have 
collected  in  the  boiler ; then  the  delivery-pipe  to  the 
boiler  may  be  attached  to  the  swivel  marked  “ to 
boiler.”  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
supply-pipe  through  which  the  water  is  lifted  is  per- 
fectly air-tight,  as  any  leak  in  the  pipe  will  interfere 
with  the  working  of  the  injector.  Washers  should 
never  be  used  in  the  swivels  connecting  the  pipes  to 
the  injector,  as  the  joints  are  all  ground. 

The  performances  of  this  little  machine  are  actu- 
ally astonishing,  as,  with  a steam  pressure  of  80  or 
90  pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  boiler  to  which  it 
is  attached,  it  will  successfully  force  water  into  other 
boilers  under  a pressure  of  from  400  to  450  pounds 
per  square  inch.  It  can  be  regulated  to  supply  any 
required  quantity  of  water,  and  is  equally  reliable 
when  it  is  used  every  day  or  not  more  than  once  a 
year. 


236 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Hints  to  Locomotive  Engineers.  — The  “Little 
Giant’’  injector  can  be  set  to  feed  a steady  stream, 
but  in  some  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  set  it  so 
that  the  boiler  will  lose  a small  quantity  of  water  in 
running  between  stations ; then,  by  keeping  the  in- 
jector at  work  while  the  engine  is  standing  at  the 
station,  a good  supply  of  water  will  be  obtained  to 
run  to  the  next  station.  This  plan,  properly  carried 
out,  will  make  a great  saving  in  fuel,  and  also  have 
a tendency  to  prevent  boiler  explosions,  as,  when  the 
engine  is  stopped,  the  whole  heat  of  the  fire  is  thrown 
against  the  sides  of  the  furnace  and  the  crown- 
sheet,  which,  if  the  circulation  of  the  water  is  not 
kept  up,  will  soon  become  overheated,  and  may  possi- 
bly cause  an  explosion. 

The  injector,  as  a boiler-feeder,  possesses  advan- 
tages in  point  of  economy  over  all  other  devices,  as 
the  steam  that  is  admitted  to  the  injector,  from  the 
boiler,  returns  to  the  boiler,  carrying  with  it  more 
than  twenty  times  its  weight  of  water.  Not  a drop 
of  water  is  lost,  nor  a particle  of  steam  wasted. 
It  occupies  but  little  space,  requires  no  oil,  packing, 
or  any  special  care,  and  very  little,  if  any,  repairs. 
It  can  be  set  up  in  almost  any  position ; but,  where 
circumstances  will  permit,  a horizontal  position  is 
very  much  to  be  preferred.  On  locomotives,  it 
should  invariably  be  placed  above  the  foot-board, 
and  within  easy  reach  of  the  engineer. 

There  should  be  one  of  these  injectors  attached 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


237 


to  every  locomotive,  as  they  are  always  available 
and  reliable  in  case  of  stoppage,  accident,  or  deten- 
tion from  any  cause  whatever.  Therefore  every 
engineer  should  encourage  their  introduction  on 
locomotives,  steamships,  stationary  and  portable 
steam-boilers. 


TABLE  OF  CAPACITIES 

OF 

KUE’S  LITTLE  GIANT  INJECTOK. 


Size  of 
Injectors. 

Size  of  Pipe 
Connections. 

Pressure  of 
steam  in  lbs. 

Gallons 
per  hour. 

Nominal 

Horse-Power. 

0 

i 

90 

60 

4 to  8 

1 

i 

90 

90 

6 “ 12 

2 

i 

90 

120 

8 “ 20 

3 

1 

90 

300 

20  “ 40 

4 

1 

90 

600 

40  •“  80 

5 

I4 

90 

900 

60  “ 120 

6 

li- 

90 

1200 

80  “ 160 

7 

90 

1620 

140  “ 225 

8 

2 

90 

2040 

200  “ 275 

9 

2 

90 

2480 

250  “ 350 

10 

2 

90 

3000 

800  “ 400 

12 

2^ 

90 

3600 

350  “ 500 

In  ordering  injectors,  it  should  be  always  stated 
whether  the  connecting-pipes  are  copper,  brass,  or 
iron,  and  whether  for  locomotive  or  stationary 
boilers. 


238  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

SIGNALS. 

A red  flag  by  day,  a red  lantern  by  night,  or  any 
signal  violently  given,  are  signals  of  danger,  on 
perceiving  which  the  train  must  be  brought  to  a full 
stop  as  soon  as  possible,  and  not  proceed  until  it  can 
be  done  with  safety. 

Two  red  flags  by  day,  and  two  red  lanterns  by 
night,  placed  on  the  front  of  an  engine,  indicate  that 
the  engine  is  to  be  followed  by  an  extra  train. 


A lantern  raised  and  lowered  vertically  is  a signal 
for  starting ; when  swung  at  right  angles,  or  across 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


239 


the  track,  to  stop ; when  swung  in  a circle,  back 
the  train. 

A sweeping  parting  of  the  hands,  on  a level  with  the 
eye,  is  a signal  to  go  ahead.  A downward  motion  of 
one  hand,  with  extended  arm,  to  stop.  A beckoning 
motion  of  one  hand,  to  back. 

One  short  sound  of  the  whistle  is  the  signal  to 
apply  brakes ; two,  to  let  go  brakes ; three,  to  back 
up;  four,  to  call  in  the  flagman;  five,  for  road 
crossings. 

One  stroke  of  the  alarm-bell  signifies  stop ; two,  to 
go  ahead ; three,  to  back  up. 


WRECKING  TOOLS. 


A A represents  a truck-axle  and  wheels.  C is 
a bar  of  iron,  about  two  by  four  inches,  bent  like  the 
bail  of  a bucket,  with  a hook  or  turn  on  each  end  of 
it  large  enough  to  hook  over  an  axle  close  to  each 


240 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


wheel,  and  which  is  used  in  pulling  cars  on  the  track 
when  they  may  be  off  on  one  side,  or  for  “ straight- 
ening the  track  toward  the  point  to  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  pull  the  car,  and  pulling  the  car  by  this 
‘‘bail”  the  track  is  kept  diiectly  in  the  line  of  draft. 

There  is  a loose  link,  B,  on  the  “bail,”  C,  into 
which  the  hook  or  draft-rope  is  attached.  When 
this  link  is  put  into  the  centre  notch  of  the  bail  the 
axle  of  the  truck  will  be  held  at  right  angles  to  the 
rope ; and  when  put  into  the  notch  on  either  side  of 
the  centre,  the  axle  will  be  held  at  a corresponding 
angle  to  the  line  of  draft  of  the  rope.  ^ 

By  this  bail  a car  (or  truck,  or  pair  of  wheels)  can 
be  pulled  in  almost  any  direction  by  putting  it  on  the 
front  axle  and  drawing  by  the  link,  B,  and  the  hook, 
A,  and  “ chaining”  the  back  truck  so  as  to  keep  it  in 
line  with  the  body  of  the  car.  The  monkey-jack,  K, 
generally  renders  good  service  in  the  case  of  wrecks. 

Portable  frogs,  made  of  heavy  boiler  plate,  with 
flanges  and  clasps  to  take  hold  of  the  rail,  are  some- 
times used  for  placing  cars  on  the  track  in  case  of  a 
wreck. 

USEFUL  NUMBERS  IN  CALCULATING  WEIGHTS, 
MEASURES,  ETC. 


Feet 

multiplied  by 

.00019 

equals  miles. 

Yards 

n 

.0006 

(t 

miles. 

Links 

(( 

.22 

(( 

yards. 

Links 

(t 

.66 

(( 

feet. 

Feet 

<( 

1.615 

(( 

links. 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


m 


Sqoare  inches  multiplied  by  .007  equals  squai  e feet. 

Circular  inches 

.00546 

tf 

square  feet. 

Square  feet 

(( 

.111 

ft 

square  yds. 

Acres 

f( 

4840 

ft 

square  yds. 

Square  yards 

(( 

.0002066 

ft 

acres. 

Width  in  chains 

ft 

.8 

ft 

acres  per  m. 

Cube  feet 

ft 

.037 

ft 

cube  yards. 

Cube  inches 

ft 

.00058 

ft 

cube  feet. 

U.  S.  bushels 

ff 

.0461 

ft 

cube  yards. 

U.  S.  bushels 

ft 

1.2444 

ft 

cube  feet. 

U.  S.  bushels 

ft 

2150.42 

ft 

cube  inches. 

Cube  feet 

ft 

.8036 

ft 

U.  S.  bushes. 

Cube  inches 

ft 

.000465 

ft 

U.  S.  bushes. 

U.  S.  gallons 

t( 

.13367 

ft 

cube  feet. 

U.  S.  gallons 

ft 

231 

ft 

cube  inches. 

Cube  feet 

ft 

7.48 

ft 

U.  S.  galls. 

Cylindrical  feet 

ft 

5.874 

ft 

U.  S.  galls. 

Cube  inches 

ft 

.004329 

ft 

U.  S.  galls. 

Cylindrical  inches 

ft 

.0034 

ft 

IT.  S.  galls. 

Pounds 

ft 

.009 

tf 

cwt. 

Pounds 

ft 

.00045 

ft 

tons. 

Cubic  foot  of  water 

ft 

62.5 

tf 

lbs.  avoird. 

Cubic  inch  of  water 

ft 

.03608 

tf 

lbs.  avoird. 

Cylindrl  foot  of  water 

ft 

49.1 

ft 

lbs.  avoird. 

Cylindr’l  inch  of  water 

ft 

.02842 

ft 

lbs.  avoird. 

U.  S.  gallons  of  water 

ft 

13.44 

ft 

1 cwt. 

U.  S.  gallons  of  water 

ft 

268.8 

. ft 

1 ton. 

Cubic  feet  of  water 

ft 

1.8 

ft 

1 cwt. 

Cubic  feet  of  water 

Sf 

35.88 

ft 

1 ton. 

Cylindr^l  foot  of  water 

ft 

5.875- 

ft 

U.  S.  galls. 

Column  of  water,  12  in.  high, 

1 in.  diameter 

ft 

.341  lbs. 

183.346  circular  inches 

ft 

1 square  ft. 

2200  cylindrical  inches 

ff 

1 cubic  foot 

French  metres  multiplied  by 

3.28 

ft 

feet. 

Kilogrammes  ‘‘ 

2.205 

ft 

avoird.  lbs. 

Grammes  “ 

.002205 

ft 

avoird.  lbs. 

21  Q 


242 


HAI^D-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


MENSURATION  OP  THE  CIRCLE,  CYLINDER, 
SPHERE,  ETC. 

1.  The  circle  contains  a greater  area  than  anj 
other  plain  figure  bounded  by  an  equal  perimeter  oi 
outline. 

2.  The  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the 
squares  of  their  diameters. 

3.  The  diameter  of  a circle  being  1,  its  circum- 
ference equals  3.1416. 

4.  The  diameter  of  a circle  is  equal  to  .31831  of 
its  circumference. 

5.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a circle  being  1, 
its  area  equals  .7854. 

6.  The  square  root  of  the  area  of  a circle  multi- 
plied by  1.12837  equals  its  diameter. 

7.  The  diameter  of  a circle  multiplied  by  .8862,  or 
the  circumference  multiplied  by  .2821,  equals  the  side 
of  a square  of  equal  area. 

8.  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  half  the  chord  and 
versed  sine,  divided  by  the  versed  sine,  the  quotient 
equals  the  diameter  of  corresponding  circle. 

9.  The  chord  of  the  whole  arc  of  a circle  taken 
from  eight  times  the  chord  of  half  the  arc,  one-third 
of  the  remainder  equals  the  length  of  the  arc  ; or, 

10.  The  number  of  degrees  contained  in  the  arc  of 
a circle,  multiplied  by  the  diameter  of  the  circle  and 
by  .008727,  the  product  equals  the  length  of  the  arc 
in  equal  terms  of  unity. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


243 


11.  The  length  of  the  arc  of  a sector  of  a circle 
multiplied  by  its  radius,  equals  twice  the  area  of  the 
sector. 

12.  The  area  of  the  segment  of  a circle  equals  the 
area  of  the  sector,  minus  the  area  of  a triangle  whose 
vertex  is  the  centre,  and  whose  base  equals  the  chord 
of  the  segment ; or, 

13.  The  area  of  a segment  may  be  obtained  by 
dividing  the  height  of  the  segment  by  the  diameter 
of  the  circle,  and  multiplying  the  corresponding  tab- 
ular area  by  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

14.  The  sum  of  the  diameters  of  two  concentric 
circles  multiplied  by  their  difference  and  by  .7854, 
equals  the  area  of  the  ring  or  space  contained  between 
them. 

15.  The  sum  of  the  thickness  and  internal  diameter 
of  a cylindric  ring  multiplied  by  the  square  of  its 
thickness  and  by  2.4674,  equals  its  solidity. 

16.  The  circumference  of  a cylinder  multiplied  by 
its  length  or  height,  equals  its  convex  surface. 

17.  The  area  of  the  end  of  a cylinder  multiplied 
by  its  length,  equals  its  solid  contents. 

18.  The  internal  area  of  a cylinder  multiplied  by 
its  depth,  equals  its  cubical  capacity. 

19.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a cylinder  mul- 
tiplied by  its  length,  and  divided  by  any  other  re- 
quired length,  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  equals 
the  diameter  of  the  other  cylinder  of  equal  contents 
or  capacity. 


244 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


20.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a sphere  mul-  ’ 
tiplieJ  by  3.1416,  equals  its  convex  surface. 

21.  The  cube  of  the  diameter  of  a sphere  multi- 
plied by  .5236,  equals  its  solid  contents. 

22.  The  height  of  any  spherical  segment  or  zone 
multiplied  by  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  of  which  it 
is  a part,  and  by  3.1416,  equals  the  area  or  convex 
surface  of  the  segment ; or, 

23.  The  height  of  the  segment  multiplied  by  the 
circumference  of  the  sphere  of  which  it  is  a part, 
equals  the  area. 

24.  The  solidity  of  any  spherical  segment  is  equal 
to  three  times  the  square  of  the  radius  of  its  base, 
plus  the  square  of  its  height,  and  multiplied  by  its 
height  and  by  .5236. 

25.  The  solidity  of  a spherical  zone  equals  the  sum 
of  the  squares  of  the  radii  of  its  two  ends,  and  one- 
third  the  square  of  its  height  multiplied  by  the  height 
and  by  1.5708. 

26.  The  capacity  of  a cylinder  1 foot  in  diameter 
and  1 foot  in  length  equals  5.875  of  a United  States 
gallon. 

27.  The  capacity  of  a cylinder  1 inch  in  diameter 
and  1 foot  in  length  equals  .0408  of  a United  States 
gallon. 

28.  The  capacity  of  a cylinder  1 inch  in  diameter  and 
1 inch  in  length  equals  .0034  of  a United  States  gallon 

29.  The  capacity  of  a sphere  1 foot  in  diameter 
equals  3.9168  United  States  gallons. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  245 

30.  The  capacity  of  a sphere  1 inch  in  diameter 
equals  .002267  of  a United  States  gallon ; hence, 

31.  The  capacity  of  any  other  cylinder  in  United 
States  gallons  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  square 
of  its  diameter  by  its  length,  or  the  capacity  of  any 
other  sphere  by  the  cube  of  its  diameter,  and  by  the 
number  of  United  States  gallons  contained  as  above 
in  the  unity  of  its  measurement. 


TABLE 

OF  DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  TO  THE  FRACTIONAL  PARTS  OP 
A GALLON  OR  AN  INCH. 

(The  inch  or  gallon  being  divided  into  32  parts.) 


1 

tn 

a 

a 

*o 

o a 

05 

in 

a 

a 

O p 

05 

05 

05 

eS 

ft 

O o 

o 

ft 

a 

ft 

•S  o 

o 

ft 

a 

.08125 

sV 

1 

1 

T 

1 

8 

.53125 

ii 

17 

2i 

.0625 

tV 

2 

1 

2 

1 

T 

.5625 

18 

4f 

2i 

.09375 

3 

3^ 

3 

i 

3 

:§• 

.59375 

1 9 

3 2 

19 

4f 

08 

.125 

1 

4 

1 

i 

.625 

5 

8 

20 

5 

2i 

.15625 

A 

5 

li 

5 

8 

.65625 

2 1 

JJ 

21 

2f 

.1875 

6 

3 

T 

.6875 

■fi 

22 

5f 

2f 

.21875 

A 

7 

If 

7 

8 

.71875 

If 

23 

5| 

.25 

8 

2 

1 

.75 

f 

24 

6 

3 

.28125 

A 

9 

.78125 

If 

25 

^i 

.3125 

TF 

10 

.8125 

ft 

26 

H 

H 

.34375 

11 

2| 

If 

.84375 

If 

27 

6i 

3f 

.375 

f 

12 

3 

H 

.875 

28 

7 

3i 

.40625 

M 

13 

3i 

If 

.90625 

2 9 

29 

H 

3f 

.4375 

tV 

14 

H 

H 

.9375 

1 5 
T6 

30 

n 

3f 

.46875 

if 

15 

3| 

H 

.96875 

3 1 
32 

31 

n 

3t 

.5 

16 

4 

2 

1.000 

1 

32 

8 

4 

21  * 


246 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


In  multiplying  decimals  it  is  usual  to  drop  all 
but  the  first  two  or  three  figures. 

Application.  — Kequired,  the  gallons  in  any  cylin- 
drical vessel.  Suppose  a vessel  9^  inches  deep, 
9 inches  diameter,  and  contents  2.6163  — that  is,  2 
gallons  and  ^ gallon.  Now  to  ascertain 

this  decimal  of  a gallon  refer  to  the  above  table  for 
the  decimal  that  is  nearest,  which  is  .625,  opposite 
to  which  is  |th  of  a gallon,  or  20  gills,  or  5 pints,  or 
2i  quarts ; consequently  the  vessel  contains  2 gallons 
and  5 pints. 

Inches.  — To  find  what  part  of  an  inch  the  .708  is 
refer  to  the  above  table  for  the  decimal  that  is 
nearest,  which  is  .71875,  opposite  to  which  is  ||,  or 
nearly  f of  an  inch. 

TABLE 

ON  FOLLOWING  PAGES  CONTAINING  THE  DIAMETERS, 

CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES,  AND  THE 

CONTENTS  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS  AT  1 FOOT  IN  DEPTH. 

1.  Eequired,  the  circumference  of  a circle,  the  di- 
ameter being  5 inches. 

In  the  column  of  circumferences,  opposite  the  given 
diameter,  stands  15.708  inches,  the  circumference  re- 
quired. 

2.  Kequired,  the  capacity,  in  gallons,  of  a cylinder, 
the  diameter  being  6 feet  and  depth  10  feet. 

In  the  fourth  column  from  the  given  diameter 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


247 


stands  211.4472,  being  the  contents  of  a cylinder  6 
feet  in  diameter  and  1 foot  in  depth,  which  being 
multiplied  by  10,  gives  the  required  contents,  2,114i 
gallons. 

3.  Any  of  the  areas  in  feet  multiplied  by  .08704, 
the  product  equals  the  number  of  cubic  yards  at  1 
foot  in  depth. 

4.  The  area  of  a circle  in  inches,  multiplied  by 
the  length  or  thickness  in  inches  and  by  .263,  the 
product  equals  the  weightr  in  pounds  of  cast-iron. 

(See  page  245  for  Decimal  Equivalents  to  the 
fractional  parts  of  a gallon  and  an  inch.) 


TABLE 

OF  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  AREAS  OF  CIR- 
CLES, AND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS  AT 
1 FOOT  IN  DEPTH. 


Diameter. 

Circumference, 

Inches. 

Area, 

Inches. 

Gallons. 

lin. 

3.1416 

.7854 

.04084 

2 “ 

6.2832 

3.1416 

.16333 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

.36754 

4 “ 

12.566 

12.566 

.65343 

5 

15.708 

19.635 

1.02102 

6 ‘‘ 

18.849  . 

28.274 

1.47025 

7 

21.991 

38.484 

2.00117 

8 

25.132 

50.265 

2.61378 

9 “ 

28.274 

63.617 

3.30808 

10 

31.416 

78.540 

4.08408 

11  “ 

34.557 

95.033 

4.94172 

248 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE  — {Continued) 

OF  DIAMETEKS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES, 
AND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS  AT  1 FOOT  IN 
DEPTH. 


Diameter. 

Circumference. 

Area  in  Feet. 

Gals.,  1 ft.  in  Depth. 

1 ft. 

3 ft.  l|in. 

.7854 

5.8735 

2 

6 “ 3|  “ 

3,1416 

23.4940 

3 ‘‘ 

9 5 

7.0686 

52.8618 

4 

12  6| 

12.5664 

93.9754 

5 

15  8J 

19.6350 

146.8384 

6 

18  lOJ 

28.2744 

211.4472 

7*“ 

21  Hi 

38.4846 

287.8032 

8 

25  “ li 

50.2656 

375.9062 

9 

28  “ Si 

63.6174 

475.7563 

10 

31  5 

78.5400 

587.3534 

11  “ 

34  6f 

95.0334 

710.6977 

12  “ 

37  8i  ‘‘ 

113.0976 

848.1890 

13 

40  10 

132.7326 

992.6274 

14 

43  Ilf  ‘‘ 

153.9384 

1151.2129 

15 

47  li 

376.7150 

1321.5454 

16 

50  3i 

201.0624 

1503.6250 

17 

53  4i 

226.9806 

1697.4516 

18 

56  6i 

254.4696 

1903.0254 

19 

59  81 

283.5294 

2120.3462 

20 

62  91- 

314.1600 

2349.4141 

21  “ 

65  Ilf 

346.3614 

2590.2290 

22  “ 

69  ‘‘  If 

380.1336 

2842.7910 

23  “ 

72  3 

415.4766 

3107.1001 

24 

75  4i 

452.3904 

3383.1563 

25 

78  6f 

490.8750 

3670.9596 

26 

81  “ 8f 

530.9304 

3970.5098 

27 

84  9f  ‘‘ 

572.5566 

4281.8072 

28 

87  ‘‘  Ilf  “ 

615.7536 

4604.8517 

29  “ 

91  11 

660.5214 

4939.6432 

30 

94  “ 2i 

706.8600 

5286.1818 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


249 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  WATER  IN  PIPE  OF  VARIOUS 
DIAMETERS  1 FOOT  IN  LENGTH. 


Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight 
in  Pounds 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight 
in  Pounds. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight 
in  Pounds. 

3 

3 

121 

51 

22} 

172} 

3} 

Si 

12} 

53} 

23 

180} 

Si 

4J 

12| 

55} 

23} 

188} 

3| 

4i 

13 

57} 

24 

196} 

4 

5i 

131 

59| 

24} 

204} 

6^ 

18J 

62} 

25 

213 

4J 

7 

13| 

64} 

25} 

221} 

4i 

7i 

14 

66| 

26 

230} 

5 

. Si 

141 

69} 

26} 

239} 

5i 

n 

141 

71} 

27 

248} 

5i 

lOJ 

14| 

74} 

■ 27} 

2571 

5| 

lli 

15 

76} 

28 

267} 

6 

12J- 

15} 

79} 

28} 

276} 

isi 

15} 

82 

29 

286} 

6} 

m 

15| 

84} 

29} 

296} 

6| 

m 

16 

87} 

30 

306} 

7 

16| 

16} 

90 

30} 

317} 

7i 

18 

16} 

92} 

31 

327} 

7i 

19} 

16| 

95} 

31} 

338} 

7i 

20i 

17 

98} 

32 

349 

8 

21| 

17} 

101} 

32} 

360 

8i 

23} 

17} 

104} 

33 

371} 

Si 

24} 

171 

107} 

33} 

382} 

Si 

26 

18 

110} 

34 

394 

9 

27} 

18} 

113} 

34} 

405} 

9} 

29} 

18} 

116} 

35 

417} 

9} 

30f 

18| 

119} 

35} 

429} 

9| 

32} 

19 

123 

36 

441} 

10 

34 

19} 

126} 

36} 

454 

lOJ 

35} 

19} 

129} 

37 

466} 

lOJ 

37} 

19| 

132 

37} 

479} 

10| 

39} 

20 

136} 

38 

492} 

11 

41} 

20} 

143} 

38} 

505} 

m 

44} 

21 

150} 

39 

518} 

m 

45 

21} 

157} 

39} 

531} 

Hi 

47 

22 

165 

40 

545} 

12 

49 

250 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTTVK, 


RULES. 

Rule. — For  finding  the  Quantity  of  Water  in  a 
Steam-boiler  or  any  Cylindrical  Vessel  in  Cubic  Inches, 
— Multiply  the  internal  area  of  the  head  or  base  in 
inches  by  the  length  in  inches ; the  product  will  be 
the  number  of  cubic  inches  of  water  in  the  boiler. 
Divide  this  product  by  1728,  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  in  the  boiler 
or  cylinder. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Requisite  Quantity  of  Water  for 
a Boiler,  — Add  15  to  the  pressure  of  steam  per 
square  inch;  divide  the  sum  by  18;  multiply  the 
quotient  by  .24;  the  product  is  the  quantity  in  U.  S. 
gallons  per  minute  for  each  horse-power. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Height  of  a Column  of  Water  to 
supply  a Steam-boiler  against  any  Pressure  of  Steam 
required, — Multiply  the  pressure,  in  pounds,  upon  a 
square  inch  of  boiler,  by  2.5 ; the  product  will  be  the 
height  in  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
boiler. 

Rule. — To  find  the  Time  a Cylindrical  Vessel  will 
take  in  filling  when  a known  Quantity  of  Water  is 
going  in  and  a known  Quantity  of  that  Water  is 
going  out  in  a given  time.  — Divide  the  contents 
of  the  cistern,  in  gallons,  by  the  difference  of  the 
quantity  going  in  and  the  quantity  going  out  per 
hour,  and  the  quotient  is  the  time  in  hours  and  parts 
that  the  cistern  will  take  in  filling. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


251 


Pressure  of  Water.  — The  weight  of  water  or  of 
other  liquids  is  as  the  quantity,  but  the  pressure  ex- 
erted is  as  the  vertical  height. 

Fluids  press  equally  in  all  directions;  hence,  any 
vessel  containing  a fluid  sustains  a pressure  equal  to 
as  many  times  the  weight  of  the  column  of  greatest 
height  of  that  fluid  as  the  area  of  the  vessel  is  to 
the  sectional  area  of  the  column. 

Lateral  Pressure. — The  lateral  pressure  of  water 
on  the  sides  of  a vessel  in  which  it  is  contained  is 
equal  to  the  product  of  the  length  multiplied  by 
half  the  square  of  the  depth  and  by  the  weight  of 
the  water  in  cubic  unity  of  dimensions. 

Discharge  of  Water. — In  circular  apertures  in  a 
thin  plate  on  the  bottom  or  side  of  a reservoir,  the 
issuing  stream  tends  to  converge  to  a point  distant  at 
about  i its  diameter  from  outside  the  orifice,  reducing 
the  quantity  nearly  |ths  from  the  quantity  due  to 
the  velocity  corresponding  to  the  height. 

When  water  issues  from  a short  tube,  the  flow  is 
less  contracted  than  in  the  former  case,  as  16  to  13. 

With  a conical  aperture,  whose  greater  base  is  the 
aperture,  the  height  of  the  frustrum  being  half  the 
diameter  of  the  aperture,  and  the  area  of  the  small 
end  to  the  area  of  the  large  end  as  10  to  16,  there 
will  be  no  contraction  of  the  vein.  Hence  this  form 
gives  the  greatest  flow. 

The  quantity  of  water  discharged  during  the  same 
time  by  the  same  orifices  under  difterent  heads,  are 


252 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


nearly  as  the  square  roots  of  the  corresponding 
heights  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  orifices. 

Small  orifices,  on  account  of  friction,  discharge  pro- 
. portionately  less  fluid  than  those  which  are  larger 
and  of  the  same  figure,  under  the  same  pressure. 

Circular  apertures  are  the  most  efficacious,  having 
less  rubbing  surface  under  the  same  area. 

If  the  cylindrical  horizontal  tube  through  which 
water  is  discharged  be  of  greater  length  than  the 
diameter,  the  discharge  is  much  increased  — can  be 
increased,  to  advantage,  to  four  times  the  diameter  of 
the  orifice. 


RULES  FOR  FINDING  THE  ELASTICITY  OF 
STEEL  SPRINGS. 

Rule  I.  — To  find  the  Elasticity  of  a given  Steel- 
plate  Spring, — Breadth  of  the  plate  in  inches  multi- 
plied by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in  inch,  and  by 
the  number  of  plates ; divide  the  cube  of  the  span  in 
inches  by  the  product  so  found,  and  multiply  by  1.66. 
The  result  equals  the  elasticity  in  of  an  inch  per 
ton  of  load. 

Rule  2. — To  find  Span  due  to  a given  Elasticity, 
and  the  Number  and  Size  of  Plate. — Multiply  the 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


253 


elasticity  in  sixteenths  per  ton,  by  the  breadth  of  the 
plate  in  inches,  and  divide  by  the  cube  of  the  thick- 
ness in  inches,  and  by  the  number  of  plates ; divide 
by  1.66,  and  find  the  cube  root  of  the’  quotient.  The 
result  equals  the  span  in  inches. 

Rule  3. — To  find  the  Number  of  Plates  due  to  a given 
Elasticity,  the  Span  and  Size  of  the  Plates,  — Multi- 
ply the  cube  of  the  span  in  inches  by  1.66  ; multiply 
the  elasticity  in  sixteenths  by  the  breadth  of  the 
plate  in  inches,  and  by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in 
sixteenths ; divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter. 
The  quotient  is  the  number  of  plates. 

Rule  4. — To  find  the  Working  Strength  of  a given 
Steel-plate  Spring, — Multiply  the  breadth  of  plate  in 
inches  by  the  square  of  the  thickness  in  sixteenths, 
and  by  the  number  of  plates ; multiply  also  the  work- 
ing span  in  inches  by  11.3 ; divide  the  former  pro- 
duct by  the  latter.  The  result  equals  the  working 
strength  in  tons  burden. 

Rule  5. — To  find  the  Span  due  to  a given  Strength 
and  the  Number  and  Size  of  Plate,  — Multiply  the 
breadth  of  the  plate  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the 
thickness  in  sixteenths,  and  by  the  number  of  plates; 
multiply,  also,  the  strength  in  tons  by  11.3,  divide 
the  former  product  by  the  latter.  The  result  equals 
the  working  span  in  inches. 

Rule  6. — To  find  the  Number  of  Plates  due  to  a 
given  Strength,  Span  and  Size  of  Plate, — Multiply  the 
strength  in  tons  by  span  in  inches,  and  divide  by 
22 


254 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


11.3  ; multiply  also  the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by 
the  square  of  4he  thickness  in  sixteenths ; divide  the 
former  product  by  the  latter.  The  result  equals  the 
number  of  plates. 

The  span  is  that  due  to  the  form  of  the  spring 
loaded.  Extra  thick  plates  must  be  replaced  by  an 
equivalent  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling  thickness, 
before  applying  the  rule.  To  find  this,  multiply  the 
number  of  extra  plates  by  the  ruling  thickness ; con- 
versely, the  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling  thickness 
to  be  removed  for  a given  number  of  extra  plates, 
may  be  found  in  the  same  way. 

Springs  were  applied  to  locomotives  in  1830,  by  T. 
Hackworth. 


CBOSSCUPa,  WEST.PHILA. 

OLIVER  EVANS’S  LOCOMOTIVE— 1804. 


To  Oliver  Evans  belongs  the  honor  of  having  built 
and  put  in  operation  the  first  high-pressure  steam- 
engine  on  record. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


255 


TABLE 

DEDUCTED  FROM  EXPERIMENTS  ON  IRON  PLATES  FOR  STEAM 
BOILERS,  BY  THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE,  PHILADA. 

Iron  boiler-plate  was  found  to  increase  in  tenacity 
as  its  temperature  was  raised,  until  it  reached  a tem- 
perature of  550“^  above  the  freezing-point,  at  which 
point  its  tenacity  began  to  diminish. 


At  32°  to  80° 

tenacity 

is 

56,000 

lbs. 

or  one -seventh  be- 
low its  maximum. 

“ 

570° 

u 

66,000 

tt 

the  maximum. 

11 

720° 

it 

li 

55,000 

tt 

the  same  nearly  as  at 
30°. 

a 

1050° 

t( 

u 

32,000 

tt 

nearly  one-half  the 
maximum. 

ti 

1240° 

tt 

ti 

22,000 

tt 

nearly  one-third  the 
maximum. 

t( 

1317° 

tt 

tt 

9,000 

tt 

nearly  one -seventh 
the  maximum. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  table  that  if  a boiler 
should  become  overheated,  by  the  accumulation  of 
scale  on  some  of  its  parts  or  an  insufficiency  of  wa- 
ter, the  iron  would  soon  become  reduced  to  less  than 
one-half  its  strength. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  RESULT  OF  EXPERIMENTS  MADE  ON  DIFFERENT 
BRANDS  OF  BOILER  IRON  AT  THE  STEVENS  INSTITUTE  OF 
TECHNOLOGY,  HOBOKEN,  N.  J. 

Thirty-three  experiments  were  made  upon  iron 
taken  from  the  exploded  steam-boiler  of  the  ferry- 
boat Westfield.  The  following  were  the  results ; 


256 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Lbs.  per  sq.  inch. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  41,653 

16  experiments  made  upon  high  grades  of  American  boiler-plate. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  54,123 

15  experiments  made  upon  high  grades  of  American  flange-iron. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  42,144 

6 experiments  made  upon  English  Bessemer  steel. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  82,621 

5 experiments  made  upon  English  Lowmoor  boiler-plate. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  58,984 

6 experiments  made  upon  samples  of  tank  iron  from  difierent 

manufacturers. 

Average  breaking  weight.  No.  1 . . . 43,831 

“ No.  2 . . . 42,011 

No.  3 . . . 41,249 

2 experiments  made  on  iron  taken  from  the  exploded  steam- 
boiler  of  the  Bed  Jacket. 

Average  breaking  weight  ....  49,000 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  experiments  re- 
veal a great  variation  in  the  strength  of  boiler-plate 
of  different  grades  of  iron,  and  furnish  conclusive 
evidence  that  the  tensile  strength  of  boiler-iron  ought 
to  be  taken  at  60,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
instead  of  60,000. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  ACTUAL  EXTENSION  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  AT 
VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES. 

Deg.  of  Fahr.  Length. 

32° 1. 

ai2  1.0011356 

392  1.0025757 

672  1.0043253 

752  1.0063894 

932  1.0087730 

112  1.0114811 

1652  1.0216024 

2192  1.0348242 

2732  1.0512815. 

2912  cohesion  destroyed.  Fusion  perfect. 


Surface  becomes  straw-colored, 
deep  yellow,  crimson,  violet,  pur- 
ple, deep  blue,  bright  blue. 
Surface  becomes  dull,  and  then 
bright  red. 

Bright  red,  yellow,  welding  heat, 
white  heat. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


267 


TABIiE 

SHOWING  THZ  TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS  QUALITIES 
OF  CAST-IRON. 

American  Cast-Iron, 

Breaking  weight  of 
a square  inch  bar. 


Common  pig-iron, 15,000 

Good  common  castings, 20,000 

Cast-iron  20,834 

‘‘  19,200 

27,700 

Gun-heads,  specimen  from,  ....  24,000 

“ 39,500 

Greenwood  cast-iron, 21,300 

(after  third  melting,)  . 45,970 

Mean  of  American  cast-iron,  ....  31,829 

Gun-metal,  mean, 37,232 

English  Cast-Iron- 

Lowmoor, 14,076 

Clyde,  No.  1, 16,125 

Clyde,  No.  3, 23,468 

Calder,  No.  1,  . . . . . . . 13,735 

Stirling,  mean, 25,764 

Mean  of  English, 19,484 

Stirling,  toughened  iron, 28,000 

Carron  No.  2,  cold-blast, 16,683 

“ 2,  hot-blast, 13,505 

3,  cold-blast, 13,200 

3,  hot-blast, 17,755 

Davon,  No.  3,  hot- blast, 21,907 

Buffery,  No.  1,  cold-blast, 17,466 

“ 1,  hot-blast, 13,437 

Cold-Talon  (North  Wales),  No.  2,  cold-blast,  . 18,855 

“ “ 2,  hot-blast,  . 16.676 

22*  R 


258 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS  QUALITIES 
OF  WROUGHT-IRON. 

American  Wrought-Iron, 


From  Salisbury,  Conn.,  . 

Breaking  weight  of 
a square  inch  bar. 

. 58,000 

ti  it  it 

66,000 

Pittsfield,  Mass., 

57,000 

“ Bellefonte,  Pa., 

58,000 

Maramec,  Mo., 

43,000 

it  it 

53,000 

Centre  County,  Pa., 

58,400 

‘‘  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  . 

58,061 

‘‘  Carp  Eiver,  Lake  Superior,  . 

89,582 

‘‘  Mountain,  Mo.,  charcoal  bloom. 

90,000 

American,  hammered. 

53,900 

Chain-iron, 

43,000 

Eivets, 

53,300 

Bolts, 

52,250 

Boiler-plates, 

50,000 

i(  it 

60,000 

Average  boiler-plates. 

55,000 

joints,  double- riveted. 

35,700 

single  ‘‘ 

• • 

28,600 

Chrome  steel,  highest  strength. 

• • 

198,910 

lowest  ‘‘ 

• • 

163,760 

‘‘  average 

180,000 

English  and  other  Wrought-Irons. 
Iron,  English  bar, 

56,000 

mean  of  English, 

. • 

53,900 

‘‘  rivets, 

• . 

65,000 

Lowmoor  iron,  .... 

. . 

56,100 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


259 


English  and  other  Wrought-Irons  — (Continued). 


Lowmoor  iron  plates, 

Breaking  weight  of 
a square  inch  bar. 

. . . . 57,881 

Bowling  plates, 

• « • • 

53,488 

Glasgow  best  boiler. 

• • • • 

56,317 

“ ship  plates. 

• • • • 

53,870 

Yorkshire  plates,  .* 

• • • • 

57,724 

Staffordshire  plates,  , 

• • • • 

43,821 

Derbyshire  plates. 

• • • • 

48,563 

Bessemer  wrought- iron,  , 

• • • • 

65,258 

a ((  « 

76,195 

tt  ((  (( 

82,110 

Russian  ‘‘ 

59,500 

(6  a a 

76,084 

Swedish 

58,084 

TABLE 

SHOWING  THE  TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS  QUALITIES  OP 
STEEL  PLATES. 


Mersey  Co.,  puddled  steel. 

108,906 

ship-plates,  . 

99,468 

Blochairn  puddled  steel,  . 

106,394 

boiler-plates, 

89,447 

Naylor,  Vickers  & Co.,  cast. 

87,972 

C(  tc  ((  u 

95,196 

T.  Turton  & Son, 

• f 

95,360 

Moss  & Gambles, 

81,588 

Shortridge,  Howell  & Co., 

• • 

108,900 

Homogeneous  metal. 

• • 

105,732 

“ ‘‘  2d  quality. 

81,662 

Bessemer  steel,  .... 

• • 

148,324 

tt  tt 

• • 

• 

154,825 

tt  tt 

• • 

• 

157,881 

260 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


CENTRAL  AND  MECHANICAL  FORCES  AND 
DEFINITIONS. 

Adhesion.  — The  measure  of  the  friction  between 
the  tires  of  the  driving-wheels  and  the  surface  of  the 
rails. 

Acceleration. — Acceleration  is  the  increase  of  ve- 
locity in  a moving  body  caused  by  the  continued  action 
of  the  motive  force.  When  bodies  in  motion  pass 
through  equal  spaces  in  equal  times,  or,  in  other 
words,  when  the  velocity  of  the  body  is  the  same 
during  the  period  that  the  body  is  in  motion,  it  is 
termed  uniform  motion.  ^ 

Angle  of  Friction. — That  pitch  of  grade  at  which 
a loaded  car  would  just  stand  without  descending, 
being  kept  at  rest  by  the  friction  of  its  bearings. 

Animal  Strength. — As  horses  were  formerly  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purposes  that  water-wheels,  wind- 
mills, and  steam-engines  now  are,  it  has  become  usual 
to  calculate  the  effect  of  these  machines  as  equivalent 
to  so  many  horses;  and  animal  strength  becomes 
thus  a sort  of  measure  of  mechanical  force. 

Axles.  — The  railway  axle  may  be  considered  as 
having  certain  relations  to  a girder  in  principle. 
Girders  generally  have  their  two  ends  resting  on  two 
points  of  support,  and  the  load  is  either  located  at 
fixed  distances  from  the  props,  or  dispersed  over  the 
whole  surface;  in  the  case  of  the  axle  the  wheels 
may  be  considered  the  props  and  the  journals  the 
loaded  parts. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


261 


Attraction.  — A tendency  which  certain  bodies 
have  to  approach  and  adhere  to  each  other.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  attraction,  as  of  gravitation,  co- 
hesion, capillary,  chemical,  electrical,  etc. 

Cohesion  is  that  quality  of  a body  which  causes 
its  particles  to  adhere  to  each  other,  and  to  resist 
being  torn  apart. 

Crushing  Strength  is  the  resistance  which  a body 
opposes  to  being  battered  or  flattened  down  by  any 
weight  placed,  upon  it.  * 

Central  or  Centrifugal  Force. — The  tendency 
which  bodies  in  motion  have  to  recede  from  their 
centres  is  called  the  centrifugal  force. 

Detrusive  Strength  is  the  resistance  which  a 
body  offers  to  being  clipped  or  shorn  into  two  parts 
by  such  instruments  as  shears  or  scissors. 

Force.  — Force  is  the  cause  of  motion  or  change 
of  motion  in  material  bodies.  Every  change  of  mo- 
tion, viz.,  every  change  in  the  velocity  of  a body 
must  be  regarded  as  the  efiect  of  a force.  On  the 
other  hand,  rest,  or  the  invariability  of  the  state  of 
motion  of  a body,  must  not  be  attributed  to  the  ab- 
sence of  forces,  for  equal  opposite  forces  destroy  each 
other  and  produce  no  effect. 

Centripetal  Force. — Centripetal  force  is  the  force 
which  has  a tendency  in  a moving  body  to  approach 
the  centre  of  motion  or  counteract  the  centrifugal 
force. 

Friction  is  the  resistance  occasioned  to  the  motion 


262 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


of  a body  when  pressed  upon  the  surface  of  another 
body  which  does  not  partake  of  its  motion. 

Gravity,  or  Centre  of  Gravity.  — The  forces  with 
which  all  bodies  tend  to  fall  to  the  earth  may  be 
considered  parallel : hence,  every  body  may  be  con- 
sidered as  acted  on  by  a system  of  parallel  forces,  whose 
results  may  be  found ; and  these  forces,  in  all  posi- 
tions of  the  body,  act  on  the  same  points  in  the  same 
vertical  direction.  There  is,  therefore,  in  every  body 
a point  through  which  the  resultant  always  passes, 
in  whatever  position  it  is  placed.  The  point  is  called 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body. 

Gyration. — The  centre  of  gyration  is  that  point  in 
which,  if  all  the  matter  contained  in  a revolving 
system  were  collected,  the  same  angular  velocity  will 
be  generated  in  the  same  time  by  a given  force  act- 
ing at  any  place  as  would  be  generated  by  the  same 
force  acting  similarly  in  the  body  or  system  itself. 

Hydrodynamics. — Hydrodynamics  is  that  branch 
of  general  mechanics  which  treats  of  the  equilibrium 
and  motion  of  fluids.  The  terms  hydrostatics  and 
hydrodynamics  have  corresponding  signification  to 
the  statics  and  dynamics  in  the  mechanics  of  solid 
bodies,  viz.,  hydrostatics  is  that  division  of  the  science 
which  treats  of  equilibrium  of  fluids,  and  hydrody- 
namics that  which  relates  to  their  forces  and  motion. 

Inertia.  — Inertia  is  that  property  of  matter  by 
which  it  tends,  when  at  rest  to  remain  so,  and  when 
in  motion  to  continue  in  motion. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


268 


Impetus.  — The  product  of  the  mass  and  velocity 
of  a moving  body,  considered  as  instantaneous,  in 
distinction  from  momentum,  with  reference  to  time, 
and  force,  and  also  to  capacity  of  continuing  its 
motion. 

Inclined  Plane.  — One  of  the  mechanical  powers; 
a plane  which  forms  an  angle  with  the  horizon.  The 
force  which  accelerates  the  motion  of  a heavy  body 
on  an  inclined  plane,  is  to  the  force  of  gravity  as  the 
sine  of  the  inclination  of  the  plane  to  the  radius,  or, 
as  the  height  of  the  plane  to  its  length. 

Indicator. — The  very  important  and  useful  instru- 
ment which  has  contributed  so  very  materially  to  the 
perfection  and  efficiency  of  our  modern  steam-engines. 

Logarithms. — The  logarithm  of  a number  is  the 
exponent  of  a power  to  which  another  given  invari- 
able number  must  be  raised  in  order  to  produce  the 
first  number.  Thus  in  the  common  system  of  loga- 
rithms, in  which  the  invariable  number  is  10,  the  loga- 
rithm of  1000  is  3,  because  10  raised  to  the  third 
power  is  1000. 

Hyperbolic  Logarithms. — A system  of  logarithms, 
BO  called  because  the  numbers  expreijs  the  areas  be- 
tween the  asymptote  and  curve  of  the  hyperbola. 

Mechanical  Power.  — Power  is  a compound  of 
weight  multiplied  by  its  velocity;  it  cannot  be  in- 
creased by  mechanical  means. 

Power,  as  the  term  is  only  properly  used  by  engi- 
neers, is  the  amount  of  work  done  in  any  given 


264 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


example  in  some  known  time.  Its  unit  is  called  the 
horse-power. 

Momentum,  in  mechanics,  is  the  same  with  impetus 
or  quantity  of  motion,  and  is  generally  estimated  by 
the  product  of  the  velocity  and  mass  of  the  body. 

Motion. — Motion,  in  mechanics,  is  a change  of 
place,  or  it  is  that  affection  of  matter  by  which  it 
passes  from  one  point  of  space  to  another. 

Motion  is  of  various  kinds,  as  follows : 

Absolute  motion  is  the  absolute  change  of  place 
in  a moving  body  independent  of  any  other  motion 
whatever. 

Accelerated  motion  is  that  which  is  continually 
receiving  constant  accessions  of  velocity. 

Angular  motion  is  the  motion  of  a body  as  referred 
to  a centre,  about  which  it  revolves. 

Compound  motion  is  that  which  is  produced  by 
two  or  more  powers  acting  in  different  directions. 

Uniform  motion  is  when  the  body  moves  contin- 
ually with  the  same  velocity,  passing  over  equal  spaces 
in  equal  times. 

Natural  motion  is  that  which  is  natural  to  bodies 
or  that  which  arises  from  the  action  of  gravity. 

Relative  motion  is  the  change  of  relative  place  in 
one  or  more  moving  bodies. 

Retarded  motion  is  that  which  suffers  continual 
diminution  of  velocity,  the  laws  of  which  are  reverse 
of  those  for  accelerated  motion. 

Oscillation,  or  the  Centre  of  Oscillation. — The 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


265 


centre  of  oscillation  is  that  point  in  a vibrating  body 
into  which,  if  the  whole  were  concentrated  and 
attached  to  the  same  axis  of  motion,  it  w^ould  vibrate 
in  the  same  time  the  body  does  in  its  natural  state. 
The  centre  of  oscillation  is  situated  in  a right  line 
passing  through  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  motion. 

Pendulum.  — If  any  heavy  body,  suspended  by  an 
inflexible  rod  from  a fixed  point,  be  drawn  aside  from 
the  vertical  position,  and  then  let  fall,  it  will  descend 
in  the  arc  of  a circle,  of  which  the  point  of  suspension 
is  the  centre. 

Perpetual  Motion.  — In  mechanics,  a machine 
which,  when  set  in  motion,  would  continue  to  move  for- 
ever, or,  at  least,  until  destroyed  by  the  friction  of  its 
^arts,  without  the  aid  of  any  exterior  cause. 

Percussion,  or  the  Centre  of  Percussion.  — The 
centre  of  percussion  is  that  point  in  a body  revolving 
about  an  axis  at  which,  if  it  struck  an  immovable 
obstacle,  all  its  motion  would  be  destroyed,  or  it 
would  not  incline  either  way. 

Prime  Movers  are  those  machines  from  which  we 
obtain  power,  through  their  adaptation  to  the  trans- 
formation of  some  available  natural  force  into  that 
kind  of  effort  which  develops  mechanical  power. 

Pneumatics.  — The  science  which  treats  of  the  me- 
chanical properties  of  elastic  fluids,  and  particularly 
of  atmospheric  air. 

Specific  Gravity.  — The  specific  gravity  of  a body 
23 


266 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


is  the  ratio  of  its  weight  to  an  equal  volume  of  some 
other  body  assumed  as  a conventional  standard. 
The  standard  usually  adopted  for  solids  and  liquids 
is  rain,  or  distilled  water  at  a common  temperature. 

Strength  is  the  resistance  which  a body  opposes  to 
disintegration  or  separation  of  its  parts. 

Torsion,  in  mechanics,  is  the  twisting  or  wrenching 
of  a body  by  the  exertion  of  a lateral  force. 

Torsional  strength  is  the  resistance  which  a body 
offers  to  any  external  force  which  attempts  to  twist 
it. 

Transverse  strength  is  the  resistance  to  bending  or 
flexure. 

Velocity,  or  Virtual  Velocity. — Virtual  velocity,  in 
mecli allies,  is  the  velocity  which  a body  in  equilibrium 
would  actually  acquire  during  the  first  instant  of  it% 
motion,  in  case  of  the  equilibrium  being  disturbed. 

Vi^eights  and  Measures.  — The  weights  and  meas- 
ures of  this  country  are  identical  with  those  of  Eng- 
land. In  both  countries  they  repose  in  fact  upon 
actually  existing  masses  of  metal  (brass),  which  have 
been  individually  declared  by  law  to  be  the  units  of 
the  system. 

Work.  — Work  is  force  acting  through  space,  and 
is  measured  by  multiplying  the  measure  of  the  force 
by  the  measure  of  the  space. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


257 


TABLE 

(CONTAINING  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  AREAS  OP 
CIRCLES  FROM  OF  AN  INCH  TO  10  INCHES,  ADVANCING 
BY  OF  AN  INCH;  AND  BY  | OF  AN  INCH  FROM  10  INCHES 
TO  50  INCHES  DIAMETER. 


DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

1 

TB’ 

.1963 

.0030 

1 5 

6.0868 

2.9483 

T 

.3927 

.0122 

2 

6.2832 

3.1416 

A 

.6890 

.0276 

A 

6.4795 

3.3411 

i 

.7854 

.0490 

i 

6.6759 

3.5465 

A 

.9817 

.0767 

A" 

6.8722 

3.7582 

f 

1.1781 

.1104 

1 

X 

7.0686 

3.9760 

tV 

1.3744 

.1503 

A 

7.2640 

4.2001 

1.5708 

.1963 

f 

7.4613 

4.4302 

A 

1.7671 

.2485 

A 

7.6576 

4.6664 

i 

1.9635 

.3068 

i 

7.8540 

4.9087 

ii 

2.1598 

.3712 

A 

8.0503 

5.1573 

i 

2.3562 

.4417 

5. 

8.2467 

5.4119 

if 

2.5525 

.5185 

H 

8.4430 

5.6727 

2.7489 

.6013 

f 

8.6394 

5.9395 

1 5 
TB" 

2.9452 

.6903 

H 

8.8357 

6.2126 

1 

3.1416 

.7854 

1 

9.0321 

6.4918 

A 

3.3379 

.8861 

ii 

9.2284 

6.7772 

1 

s 

3.5343 

.9940 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

A 

3.7306 

1.1075 

A 

9.6211 

7.3662 

i 

3.9270 

1.2271 

i 

9.8175 

7.6699 

A 

4.1233 

1.3529 

A 

10.0138 

7.9798 

1 

4.3197 

1.4848 

i 

10.2120 

8.2957 

A 

4.5160 

1.6229 

tV 

10.4065 

8.6179 

i 

4.7124 

1.7671 

1 

10.6029 

8.9462 

A 

4.9087 

1.9175 

A 

10.7992 

9.2806 

f 

5.1051 

2.0739 

i 

10.9956 

9.6211 

ii 

5.3014 

2.2365 

A 

11.1919 

9.9678 

f 

5.4978 

2.4052 

1 

11.3883 

10.3206 

il 

5.6941 

2.5801 

H 

11.5846 

10.6796 

i 

5.8905 

2.7611 

i 

11.7810 

11.0446 

268  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

table  — {Continued) 

CONTAINING  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  ETC. 


DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

a 

11.9773 

11.4159 

. 18.6532 

27.6884 

i 

12.1737 

11.7932 

« 

18.8496 

28.2744 

a 

12.3700 

12.1768 

A 

19.0459 

28.8665 

4 

12.5664 

12.5664 

i 

19.2423 

29.4647 

tV 

12.7627 

12.9622 

A 

19.4386 

30.0798 

12.9591 

13.3640 

k 

19.6350 

30.6796 

A 

13.1554 

13.7721 

A 

19.8313 

31.2964 

13.3518 

14.1862 

f 

20.0277 

31.9192 

A 

13.5481 

14.6066 

A 

20.2240 

32.5481 

f 

13.7445 

15.0331 

i 

20.4204 

83.1831 

A 

13.9408 

15.4657 

A 

20.6167 

33.8244 

i 

14.1372 

15.9043 

i 

20.8131 

34.4717 

14.3335 

16.3492 

H 

21.0094 

35.1252 

1 

14.5299 

16.8001 

i 

21.2058 

35.7848 

H 

14.7262 

17.2573 

ii 

21.4021 

36.4505 

i 

14.9226 

17.7205 

i 

21.5985 

37.1224 

if 

15.1189 

18.1900 

H 

21.7948 

37.8005 

i 

15.3153 

18.6655 

7 

21.9912 

38.4846 

if 

15.5716 

19.1472 

A 

22.1875 

39.1749 

Y 

15.7080 

19.6350 

22.3839 

39.8713 

tV 

15.9043 

20.1290 

A 

22.5802 

40.5469 

i 

16.1007 

20.6290 

i 

22.7766 

41.2825 

16.2970 

21.1252 

A 

22.9729 

41.9974 

i 

16.4934 

21.6475 

1 

23.1693 

42.7184 

16.6897 

22.1661 

A 

23.3656 

43.4455 

1 

16.8861 

22.6907 

Y 

23.5620 

44.1787 

tV 

17.0824 

23.2215 

A 

23.7583 

44.9181 

i 

17.2788 

23.7583 

i 

23.9547 

45.6636 

17.4751 

24.3014 

24.1510 

46.4153 

'•  f 

17.6715 

24.8504 

i 

24.3474 

47.1730 

• if 

17.8678 

25.4058 

A 

24.5437 

47.9370 

1 

18.0642 

25.9672 

i 

24.7401 

48.7070 

if 

18.2605 

26.5348 

11 

24.9364 

49.4833 

1 

18.4569 

27.1085 

8 

25.1328 

50.2656 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  269 

T A B Li  E — 


CONTAINING  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  ETC. 


DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

A 

25.3291 

51.0541 

f 

32.5941 

84.5409 

i 

25.5265 

51.8486 

i 

32.9868 

86.5903 

25.7218 

52.8994 

i 

33.3795 

88.6643 

1 

x 

25.9182 

53.4562 

1 

33.7722 

90.7627 

A 

26.1145 

54.2748 

i 

34.1649 

92.8858 

1 

26.3109 

55.0885 

11 

34.5576 

95.0334 

tV 

26.5072 

55.9138 

34.9503 

97.2053 

i 

26.7036 

56.7451 

i 

35.3430 

99.4021 

A 

26.8999 

57.5887 

i 

35.7357 

101.6234 

27.0963 

58.4264 

i 

36.1284 

103.8691 

TF 

27.2926 

59.7762 

f 

36.5211 

106.1394 

V 

X 

27.4890 

60.1321 

i 

36.9138 

108.4342 

H 

27-6853 

60.9943 

i 

37.3065 

110.7536 

27.8817 

61.8625 

12 

37.6992 

113.0976 

TF 

28.0780 

62.7369 

i 

38.0919 

115.4660 

9 

28.2744 

63.6174 

i 

38.4846 

117.8590 

A 

28.4707 

64.5041 

I 

38.8773 

120.2766 

i 

28.6671 

65.3968 

i 

39.2700 

122.7187 

tV 

28.8634 

66.2957 

1 

39.6627 

125.1854 

i 

29.0598 

67.2007 

i 

40.0554 

127.6765 

29.2561 

68.1120 

40.4481 

130.1923 

3. 

29.4525 

69.0293 

13 

40.8408 

132.7326 

tV 

29.6488 

69.9528 

41.2338 

135.2974 

i 

29.8452 

70:8823 

i 

41.6262 

137.8867 

A 

30.0415 

71.8181 

1 

42.0189 

140.5007 

5 

■5“ 

30.2379 

72.7599 

i 

42.4116 

143.1391 

ii 

30.4342 

73.7079 

1 

42.8043 

145.8021 

f 

30.6306 

74.6620 

f 

43.1970 

148.4896 

il 

30.8269 

75.6223 

43.5897 

151.2017 

? 

31.0233 

76.5887 

14 

43.9824 

153.9384 

ft 

31.2196 

77.5613 

i 

44.3751 

156.6995 

10 

31.4160 

78.5400 

i 

44.7676 

159.4852 

i 

31.8087 

80.5157 

I 

45.1605 

162.2956 

1 

32.2014 

82.5160 

i 

45.5532 

165.1303 

23* 


270 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


T A 13  Li  E — {Continued) 

CONTAINING  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  ETC. 


DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

1 

45.9459 

167.9896 

59.2977 

279.8110 

1 

46.3386 

170.8735 

19 

59.6904 

283.5294 

i 

46.7313 

173.7820 

i 

60.0831 

287.2723 

15 

47.1240 

176.7150 

i 

60.4758 

291.0397 

i 

47.5167 

179.6725 

1 

60.8685 

294.8312 

i 

47.9094 

182.6545 

i 

61.2612 

298.6483 

f 

48.3021 

185.6612 

1 

61.6539 

302.4894 

h 

48.6948 

188.6923 

I 

62.0466 

306.3550 

1 

49.0875 

191.7480 

1- 

62.4393 

310.2452 

i 

49.4802 

194.8282 

20 

62.8320 

314.1600 

i 

49.8729 

197.9330 

i 

63.2247 

318.0992 

16 

50.2656 

201.0624 

i 

63.6174 

322.0630 

50.6583 

204.2162 

i 

64.0101 

326.0514 

i 

51.0510 

207.3946 

i 

64.4028 

330.0643 

i 

51.4437 

210.5976 

1 

64.7955 

334.1018 

51.8364 

213.8251 

I 

65.1882 

338.1637 

52.2291 

217.0772 

•g- 

65.5809 

342.2503 

s. 

4 

52.6218 

220.3537 

21 

65.9736 

346.3614 

i 

53.0145 

223.6549 

i 

66.3663 

350.4970 

17 

53.4072 

226.9806 

i 

66.7590 

354.6571 

i 

53.7999 

230.3308 

■| 

67.1517 

358.8419 

i 

54.1926 

233.7055 

i 

67.5444 

363.0511 

1 

54.5853 

237.1049 

1 

67.9371 

367.2849 

54.9780 

240.5287 

3. 

4 

68.3298 

371.5432 

1 

55.3707 

243.9771 

F 

68.7225 

375.8261 

f 

55.7634 

247.4500 

22 

69.1152 

380.1336 

i 

56.1561 

250.9475 

4 

69.5079 

384.4665 

18 

56.5488 

254.4696 

i 

69.9006 

388.8220 

56.9415 

258.0161 

1 

70.2933 

393.2031 

i 

• 57.3342 

261.5872 

i 

70.6860 

397.6087 

•1 

57.7269 

265.1829 

i 

71.0787 

402.0388 

1 

58.1196 

268.8031 

3. 

4 

71.4714 

406.4935 

1 

58.5123 

272.4479 

4 

71.8641 

410.9728 

i 

58.9056 

276.1171 

23 

72.2568 

415.4766 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


271 


T A 13  Tj  E — {(Continued) 

CONTAINING  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  ETC. 


DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

AREA. 

DIAM. 

CIRCUM. 

: 

AREA. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

72.6495 

420.0049 

i 

78.9327 

495.7950 

\ 

73.0422 

424.5577 

i 

79.3254 

500.7415 

1 

73.4349 

429.1352 

79.7181 

505.7117 

73.8276 

433.7371 

80.1108 

510.7063 

1 

74.2203 

438.3636 

1 

80.5035 

515.7255 

f 

74.6130 

443.0146 

i 

80.8962 

520.7692 

1 

75.0057 

447.6992 

•g- 

81.2889 

525.8375 

24 

75.3984 

452.3904 

26 

81.6816 

530.9304 

i 

75.7911 

457.1150 

i 

82.0743 

536.0477 

i 

76.1838 

461.8642 

i 

82.4670 

541.1896 

f 

76.5765 

466.6380 

1 

82.8597 

546.3561 

76.9692 

471.4363 

83.2524 

551.5471 

1 

77.3619 

476.2592 

I 

83.6451 

556.7627 

i 

77.7546 

•481.1065 

1 

84.0378 

562.0027 

i 

78.1473 

485.9785 

•g- 

84.4305 

567.2674 

25 

78.5400 

490.8750 

To  find  the  circumferences  of  larger  circles,  multi- 
ply the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

For  areas  of  larger  circles,  multiply  the  square  of 
the  diameter  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  any  circle,  divide  the  cir- 
cumference by  3.1416. 

To  find  the  diameter  when  the  area  is  given,  divide 
the  area  by  the  decimal  .7854,  and  extract  the  square 
root  of  the  quotient ; that  will  give  the  diameter. 


272 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


INCRUSTATION  IN  STEAM-BOILERS. 

All  waters  contain  more  or  less  mineral  matter, 
which  is  acquired  by  percolation  through  the  earth’s 
surface,  and  consists  principally  of  carbonate  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  sulphate  of  lime  and  chloride  of 
sodium  in  solution,  clay,  sand,  and  vegetable  matter 
in  suspension. 

Some  waters  contain  far  less  mineral  ingredients 
than  others  — such  as  rain-water,  the  water  of  lakes 
and  large  rivers,  whilst  wells,  springs,  and  creeks 
hold  large  quantities  in  solution. 

When  such  water  is  boiled,  the  carbonic  acid  is 
driven  off,  and  the  carbonates,  deprived  of  their  sol- 
vents, are  rapidly  precipitated  in  a finely  crystallized 
form,  tenaciously  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  iron. 
Chloride  of  sodium,  and  all  such  soluble  salts,  are 
precipitated  in  the  same  way  by  supersaturation. 
This  combined  deposit,  of  which  carbonate  of  lime 
forms  the  greater  part,  remains  adherent  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  boiler,  undisturbed  by  the  force  of  the 
most  violent  boiling  currents. 

Gradually  this  accumulation  becomes  harder  and 
thicker,  until  it  is  as  dense  as  porcelain,  thereby 
preventing  the  proper  heating  of  the  water  by  any 
fire  that  can  be  placed  in  the  furnace.  The  high 
temperature  necessary  to  heat  water  through  thick 
scale  will  sometimes  convert  the  scale  into  a sub- 
stance resembling  glass. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


273 


The  evil  effect  of  scale  in  steam-boilers  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  a non-conductor  of  heat.  The  con- 
ducting power  of  scale  compared  with  that  of  iron  is 
as  1 to  37  ; consequently  a greater  amount  of  fuel  is 
required  to  heat  water  in  an  incrusted  boiler  than  if 
the  same  boiler  were  clean. 

Scale  of  an  inch  thick  will  require  an  expendi- 
ture of  fifteen  per  cent,  more  fuel.  This  expenditure 
increases  as  the  scale  becomes  thicker ; thus,  when  it 
is  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  sixty  per  cent,  more 
fuel  is  needed  to  raise  water  in  a boiler  to  any  given 
heat.  If  the  boiler  is  badly  scaled,  the  fire-surface 
of  the  boiler  must  be  heated  to  a temperature  accord- 
ing to  the  thickness  of  the  scale. 

For  example : To  raise  steam  to  a pressure  of  90 
pounds,  the  water  must  be  heated  to  a temperature 
of  324°  Fah.  If  a quarter  of  an  inch  of  scale  inter- 
venes between  the  shell  and  the  water,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  heat  the  fire-surface  of  the  boiler  nearly 
600°,  or  100°  Fah.  above  the  maximum  strength  of 
iron.  Now,  it  is  a well-known  fact  that  the  higher 
the  temperature  at  which  iron  is  kept,  the  more 
rapidly  it  oxidizes,  and  is  made  liable  at  any  time  to 
bulge  or  crack  by  internal  pressure,  and  is  often  the 
cause  of  explosions. 

At  a meeting  of  the  Railway  Mechanics’  Associa- 
tion, held  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1871,  the  com- 
mittee to  whom  was  referred  the  subject  of  boiler 
incrustations  reported  that  they  had  prepared  and 
S 


274 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


issued,  through  the  secretary  of  the  association,  a cir- 
cular of  questions  to  all  the  master  mechanics  of 
various  railroads  throughout  the  country,  in  order  to 
elicit  such  informationi  as  they  might  possess  on  this 
subject. 

In  compliance  therewith,  communications  had  been 
received  from  over  sixty  master  mechanics,  and  the 
information  so  obtained  was  very  extensive  and  val- 
uable, confirming  in  substance  the  theory  advanced  in 
a paper  read  in  the  convention  last  year,  to  the  *efiect 
that  the  only  effectual  way  to  prevent  incrustation  is 
to  purify  the  water,  if  possible,  before  it  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  boiler. 

To  this  end  the  committee  directed  its  efforts,  and 
had  given  special  attention  to  the  reports  of  those 
who  have  experimented,  with  a view  thereby  of 
ascertaining  the  best  and  cheapest  mode  of  accom- 
plishing the  same.  From  all  communications  re- 
ceived, it  is  found  that  most  of  the  roads  located  in 
the  Eastern  and  Southern  States  are  troubled  but 
little  with  incrustation,  while  those  in  Middle  States 
are  variously  affected  — some  suffering  greatly, 
others  none  at  all. 

Western  roads  suffer  most,  many  of  them  finding 
it  necessary,  in  order  to  maintain  average  economy 
in  fuel  and  reasonable  safety  to  the  boiler,  to  take 
out  flues  once  in  six  to  twelve  months,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  scale  from  both  boiler  and  tubes. 
Railway  engineers  in  Western  States  realize  eimilar 


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275 


difficulties  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  according  to 
location. 

Mr.  Ham,  of  the  New  York  Central,  stated  that 
he  can  run  with  economy  on  the  Eastern  Division 
four  years  without  taking  out  the  flues;  while  on 
the  Middle  Division,  on  account  of  lime  and  scale, 
he  has  to  take  them  out,  on  an  average,  every  year 
and  a half)  and  on  the  Western  Division  every  two 
years.  He  finds  it  necessary,  on  the  Middle  Divi' 
sion,  to  put  new  sheets  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
part  of  the  boiler  on  an  average  every  five  years ; 
and  with  good  water  has  only  repaired  that  portion 
of  the  boiler  once  in  eight  to  ten  years.  He  knows 
nothing  equal  to  pure  water  to  keep  boilers  free 
from  mud  and  scale. 

At  another  meeting  of  the  American  Railway 
Master  Mechanics’  Association,  the  committee  to 
whom  was  referred  the  subject  of  steam-boiler  incrus- 
tation, after  a series  of  very  exhaustive  experiments, 
reported  that  the  only  preventive  against  incrusta- 
tion was  the  use  of  pure  water  in  steam-boilers.  It 
was  also  stated  that  the  extra  expense  in  one  year, 
from  impure  water  and  incrustation,  would  amount 
to  S75,000  for  every  hundred  locomotives.  The 
committee  considered  that  to  boil  sufficient  water  to 
supply  a locomotive  for  one  year,  running  81,000 
miles,  would  require  an  extra  expenditure  of  $236 
for  fuel ; but  they  considered  that  that  was  the  only 
reliable  means  for  preventing  incrustation  and  all 
manner  of  ruptures  and  leaks  in  boilers. 


276 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


As  before  stated,  what  is  needed  to  render  efficient 
and  permanent  relief  is  an  article  that  will  attack 
the  scale,  render  it  porous,  and  destroy  the  affinity 
between  it  and  the  iron,  without  any  injuries  to  the 
latter,  and  will  hold  the  minerals  and  ingredients, 
which  are  passing  in  with  the  feed-water,  in  the  form 
of  slush  or  sludge,  until  they  can  be  blown  out.  G. 
W.  Lord,  a practical  manufacturing  , chemist  of 
Philadelphia,  wh®  has  been,  at  various  times,  con- 
nected with  many  mechanical  enterprises  in  this 
country,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America,  has 
succeeded,  by  experiment  and  observation,  in  pro- 
ducing an  article  — Lord’s  patent  boiler  compound 
— which  has  been  in  use  over  eight  years  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  South  America, 
Mexico,  and  Cuba,  under  the  most  varying  circum- 
stances, and  in  all  cases  with  satisfactory  results. 
The  manufacturer  and  patentee  can  produce  more 
than  ten  thousand  testimonials  of  its  efficiency  from 
engineers  and  steam-users.  It  neutralizes  mine  and 
mineral  waters,  which  contain  lime,  iron,  sulphur, 
and  carbonates,  destroys  their  affinity,  and  renders 
them  simple  and  harmless.  It  not  only  prevents 
the  formation  of  new  scale,  but  decomposes  the 
old  and  converts  it  into  a soluble  sediment,  which 
may  be  blown  out  every  day.  It  contains  no  acid 
which  has  any  injurious  effect  on  the  iron  of  the 
boiler, — evidence  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  manufacturer,  some  years  ago,  filled  several 
thousand  vials  with  a solution  of  his  compound,  in 
which  was  placed  a quantity  of  bright  iron  turn- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


277 


ings  and  small  pieces  of  steel  wire,  which  appear  as 
bright  as  the  day  they  were  immersed  in  the  solu- 
tion, one  of  which  will  be  sent  to  any  one  who  feels 
incredulous  on  the  subject.  Lord’s  compound  gives 
relief  in  all  cases  when  used  according  to  directions. 
Parties  wishing  to  test  its  efficiency  should  address 
Geo.  W.  Lord,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


GEO.  STEPHENSON’S  LOCOMOTIVE,  THE  " ROCK ET  " — 1829. 


The  above  cut  represents  George  Stephenson’s  loco- 
motive “ The  Rocket,”  which  won  the  prize  at  Man- 
chester, 1829,  and  fully  established  the  success  of 
the  locomotive. 

24 


278 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


BOILER  EXPLOSIONS. 

The  risk  of  life  and  property  involved  in  the  use 
of  the  steam-boiler  is  still,  as  it  has  always  been,  a 
source  of  constant  anxiety  to  the  engineer  and  steam 
user.  Explosions  continually  take  place,  under  cir- 
cumstances of  the  utmost  apparent  security.  Occur- 
ring without  warning,  and  occupying  but  an  instant 
of  time,  it  is  generally  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
except  in  rare  instances,  to  ascertain  with  certainty 
their  true  cause.  There  is  seldom  a unanimous 
opinion  on  the  part  of  experts  who  examine  into  the 
causes  after  the  event. 

But  experience  in  the  care  and  management  of 
steam-boilers  has  fully  demonstrated  that  the  prin- 
cipal causes  that  tend  to  produce  explosions  are  — 
deficiency  of  strength  in  the  shell  or  other  parts  of  a 
boiler,  insufficient  bracing,  unequal  expansion,  faulty 
construction,  leakage,  oxidation  or  rusting  away  of 
the  iron,  internal  grooving,  over-pressure,  excessive 
firing,  ignorance,  recklessness,  and  mismanagement. 

The  above  includes  everything  that  an  intelligent 
experience  has  shown  us  would  cause  a steam-boiler 
to  explode,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  remedy  is 
within  the  control  of  practical  and  intelligent  men. 
Of  course  boilers  sometimes  give  out  in  places  least 
expected,  and  show  weaknesses,  that  have  been  de- 
veloped by  use,  that  perhaps  could  not  have  been 
discovered  in  any  other  way ; and  there  may  also  be 


HA2sD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


279 


280 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


iLstances  where  no  satisfactory  reason  can  be  assigned, 
but  it  is  possible  that  even  these  could  be  accounted 
for,  were  all  the  circumstances  known. 

Though  we  are  indebted  to  science  for  ideas  and 
facts  that  have  solved  some  of  the  most  knotty 
problems  in  mechanics,  still  scientific  men  seem  to 
be  more  in  the  dark  on  the  subject  of  steam-boiler 
explosions  than  most  of  our  experienced  practical 
men  engaged  in  the  care  or  running  of  boilers,  as 
their  theories  do  not  accord  with  facts  that  are+)rought 
to  light  in  every-day  practice.  It  is  well  enough  in 
some  cases  to  advance  theories,  no  matter  how  absurd 
they  may  be,  because  they  induce  thought,  comment, 
and  experiment,  by  which  at  least  something  may  be 
gained;  but  the  evils  likely  to  arise  from  theories 
advanced  in  the  case  of  boiler  explosions  are  that 
these  scientific  theories  are  apt  to  be  accepted  as  an 
established  fact  before  anything  has  been  proved, 
because  they  are  given  to  the  public  on  occasions 
when  every  one  is  excited  by,  and  anxious  to  learn 
the  cause  of,  some  terrible  disaster. 

The  investigation  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the 
explosion  of  the  ferry-boat  Westfield  covered  a great 
deal  of  paper,  but  its  practical  meaning  might  be  con- 
densed into  a small  space,  as  the  investigation  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  the  shell  of  that  boiler  concealed 
for  years  nearly  every  defect  that  leads  directly  and 
indirectly  to  disaster.  On  that,  as  well  as  on  all 
former  occasions  of  a like  character,  the  scientific  ex- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


281 


perts  were  on  hand  with  the  gas,  electricity,  decom- 
posed steam,  dissociation  of  water,  concussive  ebulli- 
tion, and  fatigue  of  metal  theories.  The  fact  that  the 
engineer  in  charge  did  not  know  whether  the  steam- 
gauge  and  safety-valves  on  his  boiler  were  in  a ser- 
viceable condition  or  not ; or  that,  according  to  Fair- 
bairif  s experiments,  and.  all  past  and  present  expe- 
rience in  the  strength  of  steam-boilers,  he  was  carry- 
ing about  twice  the  pressure  that  the  boiler  would 
stand  \Vith  safety  when  new,  did  not  seem  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  the  scientific  experts.  Of  course  it 
would  be  unscientific  to  attribute  the  cause  of  such 
a disaster  to  imperfections  in  construction,  poor 
workmanship,  scant  bracing,  cracked  flanges,  etc. 

It  is  true  we  have  commissioners  appointed  by  the 
Government  for  the  purpose  of  making  experiments, 
and  finding  out,  if  possible,  why  boilers  explode,  but 
the  results  of  such  experiments  never  amount  to 
anything,  nor  is  any  one  better  posted  on  boiler  ex- 
plosions after  the  experiment  is  over.  The  idea  of 
building  a steam-boiler  and  then  bursting  it  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  how  much  strain  it  took  to  burst 
it,  seems  to  be  akin  to  knocking  a man^s  brains  out 
with  a club  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  jury  on  the 
trial  of  a murder  case  how  hard  a blow  it  must  have 
taken  to  kill  the  murdered  man.  Experiments  on 
obsolete  or  especial  types  of  boilers,  or  those  made  in 
the  laboratory,  will  do  little  towards  preventing  the 
explosion  of  boilers,  because  the  conditions  under 
24* 


282 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


which  boilers  are  used  in  manufactories  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  under  which  experimental  boilers 
are  used.  Test  of  safety-valves  and  steam-gauges 
would  be  beneficial,  as  it  would  undoubtedly  reveal 
a great  many  defects  in  their  construction,  and  would 
have  a tendency  to  direct  the  attention  of  steam  users 
and  inventors  to  the  improvement  of  these  most 
indispensable  adjuncts  of  the  steam-boiler. 

All  practical  experience  in  the  construction,  care, 
and  management  of  steam-boilers  goes  to  show  that 
there  is  hardly  any  two  boilers  alike,  owing  to  defects 
in  the  material,  design,  construction,  bracing,  etc.,  so 
that  the  bursting  of  100  boilers  would  not  establish 
any  criterion  for  the  strength  and  durability  of 
boilers  in  general.  Prudent  steam  users  are  not  so 
anxious  to  find  out  what  would  burst  a boiler  as  they 
are  to  know  what  would  not  burst  it ; because  the 
record  of  boiler  explosions  in  the  past  goes  to  show 
that  it  does  not  need  any  scientific  training  to  enable 
men  to  burst  or  blow  up  a boiler,  for  men  who  just 
learn  enough  to  put  coal  into  a furnace  and  look 
at  an  engine  run,  often  furnish  very  convincing 
proof  that  they  are  fully  competent  to  do  that. 

The  question  will  very  naturally  be  asked : “ How 
shall  boiler  explosions  be  rendered  less  frequent,  or 
})revented  altogether  ? ” And  the  answer  is  that  no 
specific  rule  can  be  laid  down  that  will  apply  to  all 
boilers ; each  case  requires  treatment  in  accordance 
with  the  circumstances  connected  with  it,  — that  is, 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


283 


the  type  of  boiler,  pressure  carried,  character  of 
bracing,  quality  of  water,  efficiency  of  attendant, 
etc.  Experience  has  taught  us,  so  far,  that  the  ma- 
jority of  explosions  that  have  taken  place  has  been 
caused  by  circumstances  which  might  have  been  pre- 
vented, had  sufficient  care  been  exercised  in  the  selec- 
tion of  materials  for  the  boiler  in  the  process  of  con- 
struction, and  in  the  care  of  the  boiler  after  it  was  put 
under  steam. 

Information  of  great  value  can  be  obtained  on  the 
most  practical  means  of  preventing  steam-boiler  ex- 
plosions from  the  yearly  reports  of  the  Hartford 
Steam-Boiler  .Inspection  and  Insurance  Company. 
These  reports  show,  conclusively,  that  a thorough 
and  searching  examination  of  steam-boilers  by  com- 
petent men  is  the  only  means  of  discovering  defects 
which  must  eventually  produce  explosions,  and  in 
proof  of  which  might  be  cited  the  fact  that  wherever 
steam-boilers  have  been  subjected  to  the  inspection 
of  that  Company,  the  community  received  complete 
immunity  from  steam-boiler  explosions.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  where  the  inspec- 
tion of  that  Company  comprises  about  2,000  steam- 
boilers, — not  one  explosion  has  occurred  within  the 
past  five  yearf,  though  prior  to  that  time  they  were 
of  frequent  occurrence.  What  is  true  of  Philadelphia 
is  true  of  other  places. 

But  it  is  the  locomotive  boiler  that  we  have 
more  directly  to  deal  with  now.  The  inspection  and 


284 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


examination  of  that  class  of  boilers  is  more  difficult 
than  that  of  any  other,  as  they  are  of  necessity  com- 
plicated and  difficult  to  enter ; but,  nevertheless,  the 
American  Master  Mechanics’  Association,  a body  of 
very  talented  and  practical  mechanics,  have  taken 
the  subject  of  boiler  explosions  in  hand  at  their 
yearly  convention,  and  as  they  show  by  their  discus- 
sions that  they  are  no  visionary  theorists,  but  men  of 
sound  practical  ideas,  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  but 
that  their  deliberations  will  elicit  such  information 
as  will  cause  locomotive  boiler  explosions  to  be  less 
frequent  than  they  have  been  in  the  past.  And  as  an 
evidence  that  they*  are  fully  alive  to  the  best  means 
for  preventing  such  disasters,  the  more  practical  of 
them,  at  their  last  convention,  declared  that  the  first 
step  to  be  taken  to  prevent  boiler  explosions  is  to 
secure  good  material  for  the  boiler;  next,  good  work- 
manship, and  then  care  and  intelligence  in  their  use 
and  management. 

The  number  of  locomotive  boilers  that  exploded  in 
the  United  States  within  the  last  six  years  amounted 
to  103,  causing  the  loss  of  151  lives,  and  property  to 
the  amount  of  several  million  dollars.  Any  class  of 
men  that,  by  their  practical  intelligence  and  example, 
will  render  such  disasters  less  frequent^  will  confer  a 
great  boon  on  mankind. 


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285 


ACCIDENTS. 

Rules  for  the  Course  to  be  followed  by  the  Bystanders 
in  case  of  Injury  by  Machinery,  where  Surgical  As- 
sistance  cannot  at  once  be  obtained. 

If  there  is  bleeding,  do  not  try  to  stop  it  by  bind- 
ing up  the  wound.  The  current  of  the  blood  to  the 
part  must  be  checked.  To  do  this,  find  the  artery  by 
its  beating;  lay  a firm  and  even  compress  or  pad 
(made  of  cloth  or  rags  rolled  up,  or  a round  stone 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 


or  a piece  of  wood  well  wrapped)  over  the  artery,  (see 
Fig.  1 ;)  tie  a handkerchief  around  the  limb  and 
compress  ; put  a stick  through  the  handkerchief  and 
twist  the  latter  up  till  it  is  just  tight  enough  to  stop  the 
bleeding;  then  put  one  end  of  the  stick  under  the 
handkerchief  to  prevent  untwisting,  as  in  Fig.  3. 

The  artery  in  the  thigh  runs  along  the  inner  side 
of  the  muscle  in  front,  near  the  bone.  A little  above 
the  knee  it  passes  to  the  back  of  the  bone.  In  inju- 
ries at  or  above  the  knee,  apply  the  compress  high  up 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  at  the  point  where 


28G 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


the  two  thumbs  meet  at  C,  in  Fig,  4,  with  the  knot 
on  the  outer  side  of  tlie  thigh.  When  the  leg  is 
injured  below  the  knee,  apply  the  compress  at  the 
back  of  the  thigh,  just  above  the  knee,  at  C,  in  Fig, 
2,  and  the  knot  in  front,  as  in  Figs.  1 and  3. 

The  artery  in  the  arm  runs  down  the  inner  side  of 
the  large  muscle  in  front,  quite  close  to  the  bone. 
Lower  down  it  gets  farther  forward  toward  the  bend 
of  the  elbow.  It  is  most  easily  found  and  compressed 
a little  above  the  middle.  (See  Fig.  5.) 


Fig.  4. 


Care  should  be  taken  to  examine  the  limb  from 
time  to  time,  and  to  lessen  the  compression  if  it 
becomes  very  cold  or  purple ; tighten  up  the  hand- 
kerchief again  if  the  bleeding  begins  afresh. 

In  the  case  of  shock,  when  the  injured  person  lies 
pale,  faint,  cold,  and  sometimes  insensible,  with 
labored  pulse  and  breathing,  anything  like  excite- 
ment must  be  avoided,  as  it  tends  to  exhaust  the 
patient,  who  should  be  laid  down  with  the  head 
rather  low.  Much  talking  should  be  strictly  avoided. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOI^OTIVE. 


287  - 


unless  in  words  of  encouragement.  External  warmth 
should  be  applied,  and  the  person  covered  with 
blankets,  and  bottles  of  hot  water  or  hot  bricks  ap- 
plied to  the  feet  and  to  the  armpits. 

Burns  and  Scalds.  — Injuries  of  this  kind  are 
more  dangerous  when  situated  on  the  chest  or  body 
than  when  on  the  limbs.  Burns  are  generally  more 
severe  than  scalds,  because  the  skin  is  more  fre- 
quently destroyed,  producing  a slough  or  mortifica- 
tion of  the  part,  which  must  separate  and  come  away 
before  the  wound  can  be  healed. 

Scalds  from  hot  water  or  steam  are  usually  less 
severe,  unless  very  extensive,  as  the  scarf  skin  is  only 
raised  like  a common  blister ; but  should  the  injury 
from* either  scalds  or  burns  be  severe,  a shivering, 
followed  by  depression,  is  very  likely  to  come  on.  To 
check  this,  some  warm  wine  and  water,  or  spirits  and 
water,  should  be  given  without  delay,  and  bottles  of 
hot  water  applied  to  the  hands  and  feet  to  support 
warmth. 

Bruises. — Wounds  arising  from  heavy  bodies  fall- 
ing on  the  person,  or  the  person  falling  from  a con- 
siderable height,  require  prompt  treatment;  but  dan- 
ger generally  arises  from  the  shock  to  the  system, 
and  until  the  arrival  of  medical  aid  all  efforts 
should  be  directed  to  making  the  patient  as  comfort- 
able as  possible,  by  warm  applications  or  poultices. 
Flannel  made  warm  and  applied  to  the  skin,  and  in 
some  cases  cold  water,  is  very  refreshing.  Stimulants 


288 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


should  be  avoided  except  in  cases  demanding  their 
administration,  but  they  are  agents  of  great  value  in 
the  treatment  of  that  condition  of  collapse  and  faint- 
ness which  very  commonly  occurs  after  severe  injury. 

In  administering  stimulants,  the  best  practical  rule 
is  to  give  a small  quantity  at  first  and  watch  the 
effect ; if  the  surface  becomes  warmer,  the  breathing 
deeper  and  more  regular,  and  the  pulse  at  the  wrist 
more  perceptible,  then  there  can  be  no  question  as  to 
the  advantage  of  giving  a little  mgre. 


The  first  locomotive  built  in  the  United  States 
that  bore  any  resemblance  to  the  modern  locomotive. 
Diam.  of  cylinders,  5i  inches ; stroke,  16  in. ; diam. 
of  drivers,  4i  feet.  The  boiler  contains  32  copper 
tubes,  4 inches  in  diameter  and  5 feet  long.  Weight 
of  locomotive  complete,  4 tons. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


289 


TABLE 


SHOWING  THE  TIME  AT  80  DIFFERENT  PEACES,  WHEN  TI 
IS  12  o’clock  at  new  YORK  CITY;  ALSO,  COLUMN 
SHOWING  DIFFERENCE  OF  TIME  FROM  NEW  YORK. 


New  York  City,  12  M. 

Fast. 

Slow. 

Places. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H 

31. 

S. 

H. 

M 

s. 

Albany,  N.  Y 

12 

1 

1 

P.  M. 

1 

1 

Annapolis,  Md 

11 

50 

4 

A.  M. 

*9 

5*^ 

Augusta,  Me 

12 

16 

40 

P.  M. 

16 

46 

... 

Baltimore,  Md 

11 

49 

33 

A.  M. 

16 

27 

Bangor,  Me 

12 

20 

52 

P.  M. 

20 

52 

Boston,  Mass 

12 

11 

46 

P.  M. 

11 

46 

Bufialo',  N.  Y 

11 

40 

20 

A.  M. 

1*9 

4*0 

Cambridge,  Mass 

12 

11 

30 

P.  M. 

li 

30 

Charleston,  S.  C 

11 

36 

18 

A.  M. 

23 

4*2 

Chicago,  111 

11 

5 

29 

A.  M. 

54 

31 

Cincinnati,  0 

11 

18 

2 

A.  M. 

41 

58 

Cleveland,  0 

11 

23 

36 

A.  M. 

31 

24 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

11 

54 

23 

A.  M. 

5 

37 

Columbus,  0 

11 

23 

48 

A.  M. 

36 

12 

Concord,  N.  H 

12 

10 

4 

P.  M. 

10 

*4 

... 

Detroit,  Mich 

11 

23 

50 

A.  M. 

3*6 

10 

Dover,  N.  H 

12 

12 

24 

P.  31. 

12 

24 

... 

Eastport,  Me 

12 

23 

16 

P.  M. 

28 

10 

... 

Fall  River,  Mass 

12 

11 

32 

P.  M. 

11 

32 

... 

Frankfort,  Ky 

11 

17 

20 

A.M. 

42 

4*6 

Gloucester,  Mass 

12 

13 

21 

P.  M. 

1*3 

21 

... 

Greenwich,  Eng 

4 

56 

P.  31. 

4 

56 

... 

Halifax,  N.  S 

12 

41 

33 

P.  M. 

41 

33 

... 

Hallowell,  Me 

12 

16 

40 

P.  31. 

16 

40 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

11 

48 

40 

A.  M. 

1*1* 

2*6 

Hartford,  Conn 

12 

5 

17 

P.  M. 

5 

1*7 

Havana,  Cuba 

11 

26 

29 

A.  M. 

3*3 

31 

Key  West,  Fla 

11 

28 

50 

A.  M. 

... 

31 

10 

Leavenworth,  Kan.... 

10 

37 

14 

A.  M. 

... 

*’i 

22 

56 

Lexington,  Ky 

11 

18 

48 

A.  M. 

41 

12 

Liverpool,  Eng 

4 

43 

59 

P.  M. 

4 

43 

59 

... 

... 

26  T 


290 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


T A B I-i  '^  — {Continued) 


SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENCE  OF  TIME,  ETC. 


New  York  City, 

12  M. 

Fast. 

Slow. 

Places. 

H. 

M. 

s. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

s. 

Lockport,  N.  Y 

11 

40 

56 

A.  M. 

19 

4 

London,  Eng 

4 

55 

36 

P.  M. 

*4 

55 

36 

... 

Louisville,  Ky 

11 

14 

... 

A.  M. 

4*6 

Lowell,  Mass 

12 

10 

44 

r.  M. 

io 

44 

... 

Memphis,  Tenn 

10 

55 

28 

A.  M. 

1 

*4 

32 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

11 

4 

23 

A.  M. 

... 

55 

37 

Mobile,  Ala 

11 

3 

54 

A.  M. 

66 

6 

Montpelier,  Vt 

12 

5 

36 

P.  M. 

... 

’5 

36 

Montreal,  C.  E 

12 

1 

48 

P.  M. 

1 

48 

Nantucket,  Mass 

12 

15 

38 

P.  M. 

15 

38 

Newark,  N.  J 

11 

59 

20 

A.  M. 

... 

4*6 

New  Bedford,  Mass... 

12 

12 

18 

P.  M. 

12 

18 

Newbury  port.  Mass... 

12 

12 

32 

P.  M. 

... 

12 

32 

New  Haven,  Conn 

12 

4 

18 

P.  M. 

4 

18 

... 

New  London,  Conn... 

12 

7 

40 

P.  M. 

7 

40 

... 

New  Orleans,  La 

10 

56 

A.M. 

... 

1 

*4 

... 

Newport,  E.  I 

12 

10 

46 

P.  M. 

10 

46 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. . 

11 

39 

44 

A.  M. 

... 

2*6 

16 

Norfolk,  Va 

11 

50 

46 

A.  M. 

... 

9 

14 

Northampton,  Mass... 

12 

5 

30 

P.  M. 

5 

3*6 

Omaha  City,  Neb 

10 

32 

4 

A.  M. 

*1 

2*7 

56 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

11 

49 

36 

A.  M. 

10 

24 

Paris,  France 

5 

5 

21 

P.  M. 

*5 

”5 

2*1 

... 

... 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

11 

55 

20 

A.  M. 

... 

... 

4 

26 

Pikers  Peak,  Col 

9 

56 

... 

A.  M. 

... 

... 

2 

4 

... 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

11 

35 

52 

A.  M. 

... 

24 

8 

Portland,  Me 

12 

15 

2 

P.  M. 

1*5 

2 

... 

Portsmouth,  N.  H 

12 

12 

57 

P.  M. 

12 

57 

... 

... 

Providence,  E.  I 

12 

10 

25 

P.  M. 

... 

10 

25 

Provincetown,  Mass... 

12 

15 

48 

P.  M. 

15 

48 

... 

... 

Quebec,  C.  E 

12 

11 

11 

P.  M. 

11 

11 

... 

Ealeigh,  N.  C 

11 

40 

48 

A.  M. 

... 

19 

12 

Eichmond,  Va .... 

11 

46 

10 

A.  M. 

... 

... 

... 

13 

50 

Eochester,  N.  Y 

11 

44 

36 

A.M. 

... 

... 

... 

15 

24 

Sacramento  City,  Cal. 

8 

50 

9 

A.M. 

... 

... 

*3 

9 

51 

HAND-BOOK  01  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


291 


TABLE  — {Continued) 
SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENCE  OF  TIME,  ETC. 


New  York  City,  12  M. 

Fast. 

Slow. 

Places. 

H. 

M. 

s. 

H. 

M. 

s. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

Salem,  Mass 

12 

12 

26 

P.  M. 

12 

26 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

9 

27 

36 

A.  M. 

... 

”2 

32 

24 

San  Francisco,  Cal.... 

8 

46 

13 

A.  M. 

3 

13 

47 

Saratoga,  N.  Y 

12 

1 

P.  M. 

1 

... 

Savannah,  Ga 

11 

31 

39 

A.  M. 

... 

28 

21 

Springfield,  Mass 

12 

5 

37 

P.  M. 

*5 

37 

... 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

10 

54 

59 

A.  M. 

... 

1 

*i 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

11 

51 

12 

A.  M. 

... 

48 

Tallahassee,  Fla 

11 

17 

36 

A.  M. 

42 

24 

Toronto,  C.  W 

11 

38 

27 

A.  M. 

... 

21 

33 

Trenton,  N.  J 

11 

37 

24 

A.  M. 

2 

36 

Utica,  N.  Y 

11 

55 

8 

A.  M. 

... 

4 

52 

Washington,  I).  C 

11 

47 

48 

A.  M. 

12 

12 

West  Point,  N.  Y 

12 

10 

P.  M. 

« 

M.  W.  BALDWIN’S  LOCOMOTIVE  “ I RONSi DES  ” — 1832. 


The  above  locomotive  was  placed  on  the  Philadel- 
phia, Germantown  & Norristown  E.E.,  and  estab- 
lished the  success  of  the  locomotive  in  the  U.  S. 


292 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DISTANCE  BY  RAILROAD  BETWEEN  IMPOR- 
TANT PLACES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


MILES. 

From  New  York  to 


Albany 144 

Baltimore,  Md 184 

Boston 236 

Buffalo,  via  Hornellsville  423 

Buffalo,  via  Albany 442 

Charleston,  S.  C 788 

Chicago,  via  Albany, 
Buffalo  and  Cleveland..  980 
Chicago,  via  Buffalo  and 

Cleveland 1043 

Chicago,  via  Erie  Rail- 
way and  Cleveland 957 

Chicago,  via  Philadelphia 

and  Pittsburg 935 

Cincinnati,  v i a Albany 

and  Buffalo 880 

Cincinnati,  via  Erie  Rail- 
way and  Dunkirk 857 

Cincinnati,  via  Philadel- 
phia and  Pittsburg 807 

Cleveland,  via  Albany  and 

New  York  Central 625 

Cleveland,  via  Erie  Rail- 
way  602 

Cleveland,  via  Philadel- 
phia and  Pennsylvania  580 

Dunkirk 460 

Indianapolis,  via  Albany, 
Buffalo  and  Cleveland..  911 


Indianapolis,  via  Erie 
Railway  and  Cleveland  888 


MILES. 

From  New  York  to 


Indianapolis,  via  Phila- 
delphia and  Pittsburg..  838 
Louisville,  via  Dunkirk...  994 
Louisville,  via  Philadel- 
phia  946 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,via  Dun- 
kirk and  Chicago 1049 

Mobile,  Ala 1432 

Montreal,  Canada 403 

Niagara  Falls,  via  Erie 

Railway 438 

Niagara  Falls,  via  New 

York  Central 447 

Philadelphia 87 

Quebec,  Canada 582 

Richmond,  Va 355 

Rock  Island,  111 1139 

St.  Louis,  via  Dunkirk 

and  Chicago 1242 

Washington,  D.  C 244 

From  Boston  to 

Albany 200 

Augusta,  Me 165 

Baltimore 420 

Bumdo 418 

Charleston,  S.  C 1018 

Chicago,  via  Canada 1013 

Cincinnati,  via  Cleveland  936 

Halifax,  N.  S 653 

Montreal,  Canada 322 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


293 


From  Boston  to 

New  Orleans,  La 1828 

New  York,  via  Hartford..  236 

Philadelphia 323 

Portland,  Me 105 

Quebec,  Canada.. 422 

Kichmond,  Va 591 

Savannah,  Ga 1143 

St.  Louis,  via  Chicago 1298 

Washington,  D.  C 460 

From  Philadelphia  to 

Baltimore 97 

Boston 323 

Buffalo 424 

Charleston 789 

Chicago 847 

Cincinnati,  via  Pittsburg 

and  Steubenville 663 

Cleveland,  via  Pittsburg . 492 

Detroit,  Mich 766 

Elmira 275 

Galena,  111 1018 

Harrisburg,  Pa 106 

Indianapolis,  via  Steuben- 
ville and  Columbus 730 

Louisville,  via  Steuben- 
ville and  Cincinnati 796 

Louisville,  via  Pittsburg 

and  Ohio  River- 963 

Milwaukee,  via  Cleveland  937 

Mobile 1345 

Montgomery,  Ala 1148 

New  Orleans 1511 

Niagara  Falls 443 

Pittsburg 353 

25* 


MILES 


From  Philadelphia  to 

Pottsville,  Pa 93 

Richmond,  Va 268 

Rochester,  N.  Y 373 

Rock  Island,  via  Chicago  1028 

Savannah,  Ga 901 

St.  Louis,  via  Cleveland 

and  Chicago 1132 

St.  Louis,  via  Pittsburg 

and  Indianapolis 1022 

St.  Louis,  via  Pittsburg 

and  Cincinnati. 1050 

Toronto,  via  Catawissa 

and  Niagara 497 

Washington,  D.  C 137 

From  Baltimore  to 

Boston 420 

Charleston,  S.  C 692 

Chicago,  via  Wheeling 

and  Cleveland 878 

Cincinnati,  via  Wheeling 
and  Central  Ohio  Rail- 
road  629 

Cincinnati,  via  Wheeling 
and  Ohio  River  boat....  763 
Cleveland,  via  Baltimore 

* and  Ohio  Railroad 523 

Cleveland,  via  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad 469 

Cumberland,  Md 178 

Elmira,  N.  Y 247 

Harper’s  Ferry 82 

Jonesboro’,  Tenn 524 

New  York 184 

Niagara  Falls 415 


294 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


MILES. 

From  Baltimore  to 


Philadelphia 97 

Pittsburg,  via  Pennsylva- 
nia Railroad 330 

Raleigh,  N.  C 342 

Rock  Island,  via  Chicago  1059 

Staunton,  Va 197 

St.  Louis,  via  Wheeling 
and  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi Rivers 1459 

Washington,  D.  C. 40 

Wheeling,  via  Baltimore 

and  Ohio  Railroad 380 

Williamsport,  Pa 169 

From  Washington,  D.  C.,  to 

Baltimore 40 

Boston 460 

Buffalo 442 

Charleston,  S.  C 652 

Chicago 864 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 509 

Cleveland 509 

Corralles,  Oregon  (Over- 
land Route) 3485 

Detroit,  Mich 684 

Galveston,  Texas 1800 

Halifax,  N.  S 1113 

Memphis,  Tenn 1476 

Mexico,  City  of  Mexico...  2400 

Montreal,  Canada 627 

New  Orleans,  La 1365 

New  York 224 

Philadelphia 137 

Quebec,  Canada 772 


MILES. 

From  Washington,  D.  C.  to 


Salt  Lake  City 2672 

San  Francisco  (Overland)  3000 
Santa  F6,  New  Mexico  ...  2192 

St.  Louis,  Mo 1040 

St.  Paul,  Minn* 1345 

Toronto,  Canada 623 


OVERLAND  ROUTE. 


Atchison  to 

Fort  Kearney 260 

Denver,  Colorado 650 

North  Platte 876 

Green  River. 1053 

Great  Salt  Lake  City, Utah  1250 

Bear  River 1340 

Boisee  City 1649 

Virginia  City 1733 

Helena 1853 

Sierra  Nevada  (Summit)..  2085 

Sacramento  City 2225 

San  Francisco 2365 

St.  Louis  to 

Fort  Kearney 598 

Fort  Laramie 1058 

Red  Buttes 1215 

Fort  Bridger 1493 

Bear  River 1528 

Fort  Hall 1684 

Fort  Boisee 2001 

Fort  Walla- Walla 2229 

Fort  Vancouver 2416 

Oregon  City 2446 


HAND-BOOK  OP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE, 


295 


DISTANCES  FROM  PHILADELPHIA  TO  CITIES 
AND  TOWNS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  THE 
SHORTEST  ROUTES. 


MILES. 


Albany,  N.  Y 232 

Absecom,  N.  J 52 

Allentown,  Pa 71 

Alliance,  Ohio 449 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 59 

Altoona,  Pa 238 

Augusta,  Ga 742 

Baltimore,  Md 97 

Bangor,  Me 578 

Bellefonte,  Pa 250 

Bethlehem,  Pa 54 

Beverly,  N.  J 13 

Boonsburg,  Pa 149 

Bordentown,  N.  J, 27 

Boston,  Mass 323 

Bridgeton,  N.  J 37 

Bristol,  Pa 17 

Bristol,  Va 620 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 89 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 424 

Burlington,  N.  J 19 

Burlington,  Iowa 1050 

Camden,  N.  J 1 

Cape  May  City,  N.  J 84 

Carlisle,  Pa 124 

Catawissa,  Pa 145 

Catskill  (Landing)  N.  Y..  199 

Charleston,  S.  C 563 

Chambersburg,  Pa 158 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 760 

Chester,  Pa 14 


MILES. 


Cheyenne,  Dakota 1824 

Chicago,  111 823 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 668 

Claymont,  Del 20 

Clearfield,  Pa 264 

Cleveland,  Ohio 505 

Coates ville.  Pa 40 

Columbia,  Pa 80 

Columbus,  Ohio 584 

Corning,  N.Y 292 

Corry,  Pa 413 

Cresson,  Pa 253 

Crestline,  Ohio 544 

Crisfield,  Md 163 

Cumberland,  Md 276 

Danville,  Pa 154 

Davenport,  Iowa 1006 

Delanco,  N.  J 12 

Delaware  Water  Gap,  Pa.  100 

Detroit,  Mich 675 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 1180 

Dover,  Del 76 

Downingtown,  Pa 33 

Doylestown,  Pa 32 

Dunkirk,  N".  Y 461 

Eagle,  Pa 17 

Easton,  Pa 66 

Ebensburg,  Pa 264 

Egg  Harbor,  N.  J 41 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 73 

Ellicott’s  Mills,  Md... 113 


296 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMO'^IVE, 


MILES. 

Fkom  Philadelphia  to 


Elmira,  N.Y 275 

Elkton,  Md 46 

Erie,  Pa 451 

Flemington,  N.  J 58 

Florence,  N.  J 23 

Fort  Harker,  Kan 1499 

Fort  Riley,  Kan 1414 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 675 

Franklin,  Pa.,  via  Pitts- 
burg  480 

Frederick,  Md 160 

Fredericksburg,  Va 208 

Freehold,  N.  J 59 

Galveston,  Texas 1734 

Gettysburg,  (via  Colum- 
bia, Pa.) 122 

Girard,  Pa 113 

Glassboro,  N.  J 18 

Grafton,  Va 377 

Greensburg,  Pa 324 

Gwynedd,  Pa 18 

Haddonfield,  N.  J 7 

H agersto  wn  ,Md  — 180 

Hammonton,  N.  J 30 

Hamilton,  Canada 489 

Harrington,  Del 92 

Harrisburg,  Pa 106 

Harper^s  Ferry,  Va 179 

Hartford,  Conn.. 198 

Havre  de  Grace,  Md 62 

Hightstown,  N.  J 41 

Hollidaysburg,  Pa 246 

Hornellsville,N.Y 333 

Huntingdon,  Pa 204 

Indiana,  Pa 320 


MILES. 

Fkom  Philadeli^hia  to 


Indianapolis,  Ind 736 

Jackson,  Miss 1344 

Jamesburg,  N.  J 48 

Jefferson  City,  Mo 1125 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 87 

Johnstown,  Pa 277 

Kane,  Pa 356 

Kansas  City,  Mo 1280 

Knoxville,  Tenn 740 

Lambertville,  N.  J 46 

Lancaster,  Pa 69 

Laramie,  Dakota 1886 

Lawrence,  Kan 1313 

Leavenworth,  Kan 1307 

Lebanon,  Pa 86 

Lewistown,  Pa 167 

Linwood,  Pa 18 

Little  Rock,  Ark 1300 

Lockhaven,  Pa 228 

Long  Branch,  N.  J 82 

Louisville,  Ky 775 

Lowell,  Mass 358 

Lynchburg,  Va 316 

Lynn,  Mass 343 

Madison,  Wis 961 

Mahanoy,  Pa 117 

Martinsburg,  Va 198 

Mauch  Chunk,  Pa ...  87 

Media,  Pa 14 

Meadville,  Pa 444 

Memphis,  Tenn 1152 

Middletown,  Pa 97 

Milford,  N.  J 65 

Millville,  N.  J 40 

Milton,  Pa 176 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


297 


MILES. 


Fkom  Philadelphia  to 

Milwaukee,  Wis 908 

Mobile,  Ala 1472 

Morgan’s  Corner,  Pa 14 

Montgomery,  Ala 1037 

Moorestown,  N.  J 10 

Morristown,  N.  J 118 

Morrisville,  Pa 26 

Mount  Holly,  N.  J 18 

Mount  Joy,  Pa 82 

Nashville,  Tenn 960 

Natrona,  Pa 378 

Newark,  Del 40 

Newark,  N.J 79 

New  Brunswick,  N.J 56 

Newburyport,  Mass 368 

Newburg,  N.  Y 148 

New  Castle,  Del 34 

New  Haven,  Conn 160 

New  London,  Conn 160 

New  Orleans,  La 1527 

Newport,  R.  I.  (rail  and 

boat) 251 

New  York  City 88 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y 446 

Northumberland,  Pa 163 

Norristown,  Pa 17 

Ogden,  Utah 2346 

Oil  City,  Pa 440 

Omah.i,  Nebraska / 1316 

Paoli,  Pa 20 

Parkersburg,  Va 481 

Parkersburg,  Pa 45 

Paterson,  N.  J 104 

Pemberton,  N.J 24 

Pensacola,  Fla 1106 


MILES. 


Fkom  Philadelphia  to 

Perry  ville,  Md 61 

Petersburg,  Va 290 

Phillipsburg,  N.  J 81 

Philipsburg,  Pa 227 

Phoenixville,  Pa 28 

Pittsburg,  Pa 355 

Pittstown,  Pa 151 

Pittson,  N.  J 26 

Port  Clinton,  Pa 78 

Portland,  Me 440 

Portsmouth,  N.  H 384 

Pottstown,  Pa 40 

Pottsville,  Pa 98 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y 163 

Princess  Anne,  Md 144 

Princeton,  N.  J 40 

Providence,  R.  1 272 

Promontory,  Utah 2400 

Quakake,  Pa 106 

Quakertown,  Pa 38 

Rahway,  N.J 68 

Raleigh,  N.  C 451 

Reading,  Pa 58 

Richmond,  Va 268 

Ridgeway,  Pa 332 

Riverton,  N.  J 7 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  via  Wil- 
liamsport, Pa 373 

Rochester,  Pa 381 

Rupert,  Pa 147 

Sacramento,  Cal 3090 

Salt  Lake  City 2369 

St.  George’s,  Del 44 

St.  Louis,  Mo 998 

St.  Mary’s,  Pa 323 


^98 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


MILES. 

From  Philadelphia  to 


St.  Paul,  Minn 1302 

Salem,  Mass 348 

Salem,  N.  J 43 

Salisbury,  Md 131 

San  Francisco,  Cal 3228 

Saratoga,  N.  Y 264 

Savannah,  Ga 879 

Schuylkill  Haven,  Pa 89 

Scranton,  Pa 164 

Seaford,  Del 112 

Sheridan,  Kan 1685 

Sing  Sing,  N.  Y 120 

Smyrna,  Del 66 

South  Amboy,  N.  J 63 

Springfield,  Mass 224 

Steamboat,  Pa 27 

Stroudsburg,  Pa 102 

Sunbury,  Pa 163 

Suspension  Bridge,  N.  Y.  448 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 380 

Swedesboro,  N.  J 18 

Tacony,  Pa 6 

Tamaqua,  Pa 98 

Titusville,  Pa 458 


MILES. 

From  Philadelphia  to 


Toronto,  Canada 528 

Trenton,  N.  J 28 

Troy,  N.  Y 238 

Tullytown,  Pa 21 

Tunkhannock,  Pa 176 

Tyrone,  Pa 524 

Uintah  (Salt  Lake) 2340 

Valley  Forge,  Pa 24 

Vicksburg,  Miss 1388 

Vincennes,  Ind 716 

Vineland,  N.J 35 

Warren,  Pa 385 

Washington,  D.  C 138 

Waterford,  N.  J 23 

Weldon,  N.C 354 

Westchester,  Pa 27 

Wheeling,  Va 424 

Whitehall,  Pa 11 

White  Haven,  Pa 110 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 142 

Williamsport,  Pa 197 

Wilmington,  Del 28 

Wilmington,  N.  C 516 

Woodbury,  N.J 8 


Number  of  Miles  of  Railroad  in  the  World  in 
1873. — The  whole  number  of  miles  of  railroad  in 
the  world  at  the  close  of  1873,  was  about  167,500, 
or  nearly  seven  times  the  circumference  of  the  earth. 
North  America,  86,000  miles;  Europe  and  entire 
Eastern  hemisphere,  79,000;  South  America,  2,500, 
all  of  which  were  constructed  at  a cost  of  $6,400,- 
000,000. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


299 


VOCABULARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  AS  AP- 
PLIED TO  THE  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  LOCO- 
MOTIVES. 

Air  Chamber.  — An  air-tight  vessel  attached  to  the 
feed-pump,  for  the  purpose  of  cushioning  the  pump  and 
lessening  the  jar  caused  by  the  action  of  the  plunger  and 
the  pressure  in  the  boiler. 

Apron.  — The  sheet-iron  plate  that  covers  the  space 
between  the  engine  and  tender. 

Arch  Pipes.  — The  steam -pipes  which  connect  the 
double  cone  with  the  cylinders. 

Ash  Pan. — A box  or  tray  beneath  the  furnace  to  catch 
the  falling  ashes  and  cinders. 

Axles.  — The  revolving  shafts  to  which  the  wheels  of 
locomotives  and  cars  are  attached. 

Back  Dome.  — The  dome  in  which  the  dry-pipe  is 
placed. 

Back  Furnace  Brace.  — A brace  that  runs  from  the 
back  of  the  furnace  to  the  end  of  the  frames. 

Bell  Yoke.  — A cast-iron  yoke  on  top  of  the  boiler,  in 
which  the  bell  swings. 

Bissel  Truck. — A truck  especially  designed  to  relieve 
the  lateral  rigidity  in  locomotives  and  enable  them  to 
pass  curves  with  ease. 

Blast  Pipes. — Two  pipes  inserted  in  the  exhaust  ports, 
with  their  upper  ends  contracted,  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
citing an  artificial  draft. 

Blow-olT  Cocks. — A cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  fire-box 
through  which  to  empty  the  boiler. 

Blower  Pipe.  — A pipe  in  the  smoke-box  connected 
with  the  blower-cock  in  the  cab  to  blow  steam  through, 


300 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


for  the  purpose  of  producing  a draft  when  the  engine  is 
not  in  motion. 

Boiler.  — The  source  of  all  power  where  steam  is 
used  as  a motor.  The  vessel  in  which  the  steam  is  gen- 
erated. 

Bonnet.  — A wire  cap  or  netting  surmounting  the 
chimney,  to  keep  down  the  sparks  and  cinders. 

Boxes. — The  bearings  resting  on  the  journals  of  loco- 
motive and  car  axles. 

Brackets. — The  braces  which  support  the  head-lights 
on  the  front  end  of  locomotives. 

Brasses.  — A term  applied  to  the  boxes  on  the  cross- 
heads and  crank-pins  of  locomotives. 

Brake. — A drag  applied,  by  moving  of  rods  and  levers, 
to  the  wheels  of  railway  cars,  for  the  purpose  of  checking 
their  velocity 

Brick  Arch.- -A  brick  slab  placed  across  the  front  end 
of  the  furnace,  directly  over  the  fire,  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  the  smoke  and  gases  in  contact  with  the  fire 
until  they  become  thoroughly  mixed. 

Bumpers.  — Timbers  bolted  to  the  frame  on  the  front 
end  of*  engines  and  rear  end  of  tenders. 

Bumper  Blocks.  — Pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  the 
bumpers  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  jar  when  the 
cars  strike. 

Bumper  Sheet. — A sheet  placed  on  the  front  end  of 
the  frame  to  cover  the  space  between  the  bumper  and  the 
cylinders. 

Cab.  — A house  for  the  engineer  and  fireman  on  the 
back  end  of  the  boiler  of  the  locomotive. 

Cab  Handles.  — Handles  fastened  on  the  cab  to  assist 
the  engineer  and  fireman  in  getting  on  or  off  the  engine. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


301 


Cellars.  — Chambers  in  the  jaws  of  the  boxes,  to  hold 
oil  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  journals. 

Cellar  Bolts.  — The  bolts  which  hold  the  cellars  up  to 
the  journals. 

Centre  Casting. — The  casting  that  forms  the  connec- 
tion between  the  truck- bolster  and  the  front  end  of  the 
boiler. 

Check  Valve.  — A valve  connected  with  the  boiler  to 
prevent  the  back  pressure  in  the  boiler  from  interfering 
with  the  action  of  the  pump. 

Check  Chamber.  — A chamber  attached  to  the  waist 
of  the  boiler,  through  which  the  water  passes  from  the 
connecting  pipe  to  the  boiler. 

Connecting  Pipe.— The  water-pipe  that  connects  the 
pump  with  the  check-valve. 

Connecting  or  Main  Rods. — The  rods  that  communi- 
cate the  pressure  on  the  pistons  to  the  crank-pins  of  the 
main  driving-wheels. 

Counter-balances.  — Large  blocks  of  iron,  cast  or 
secured  to  two  or  more  arms  of  each  driving-wheel,  op- 
posite the  crank-pin,  for  the  purpose  of  balancing  the 
weight  of  the  parallel  and  main  rods  and  steadying  the 
motion  of  the  engine. 

Cow-Catcher. — See  Pilot. 

Crank  Pins.  — The  pins  that  convert  the  rectilineal 
motion  of  the  pistons  to  the  rotary  motion  of  the  driving- 
wheels. 

Cross  Heads.  — Blocks  moving  in  guides,  having  the 
end  of  the  piston-rods  secured  within  them  at  one 
end,  and  pins  to  attach  the  connecting-rods  at  the 
other. 

Cross-Head  Pins.  — The  pins  or  wrists  in  the  cross* 
heads  to  which  the  main  rods  are  attached. 

26 


302 


HAKD-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Crown  Bars.  — Bars  on  the  upper  side  of  the  crown- 
sheet  in  the  water  space,  with  their  ends  resting  on  the 
edges  of  the  furnace-sheet,  for  the  purpose  of  strengthen- 
ing the  crown-sheet. 

Crown-Bar  Braces.  — Braces  attached  to  the  crown- 
bars  and  to  the  top  shell  of  the  boiler,  to  give  additional 
strength  to  the  crown-sheet  and  the  top  of  the  boiler. 

Crown  Sheet. — The  top  sheet  of  the  furnace  directly 
over  the  fire,  to  which  the  crown-bars  are  attached. 

Cut  Off.— See  Slide  Valve. 

Cylinders. — Two  steam-tight  tubes  attached  to  the 
front  end  of  the  boiler  at  the  smoke-box,  in  which  the 
pistons  move,  through  which  the  mechanical  effects  of 
the  steam  are  transmitted  to  the  cranks  by  means  of  steam- 
tight  pistons. 

Cylinder  Cocks. — Small  cocks  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
cylinders,  through  which  the  condensed  water  escapes. 

Cylinder  Heads.  — The  front  and  back  head  of  the 
cylinders,  the  latter  containing  the  stuffing-boxes,  through 
which  the  piston-rods  move. 

Dampers.  — Doors  in  the  front  and  rear  end  of  the 
ash-pan  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  air  admitted  to  the 
furnace. 

Damper  Handle.— A handle  passing  through  the  foot- 
plate to  open  or  close  the  dampers. 

Dashers.  — Sheet-iron  plates  attached  to  the  inside 
shell  of  the  boiler  opposite  the  pump-check,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  cold  water  from  striking  the  tubes. 

Deflector.  — An  arrangement  used  in  the  furnaces  of 
locomotives  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  the  air  and  gases, 
and  causing  the  latter  to  ignite  and  render  the  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel  more  perfect. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


303 


Dome. — The  elevated  chamber  on  the  top  of  the  boiler 
from  which  the  steam  is  taken  to  the  cylinders. 

Dome  Bodies.  — The  sheet-iron  jacket  that  surrounds 
the  domes  of  locomotives  outside  of  the  wooden  lagging. 

Dome  Stays. — Braces  connected  with  the  crown-bars 
at  one  end,  and  the  dome  at  the  other,  for  the  purpose 
of  strengthening  the  dome  and  the  crown-sheet. 

Dome  Top.  — A covering  to  which  the  safety-valves 
and  whistle-stand  are  attached. 

Double  Cones.  — The  steam-tight  joint  that  connects 
the  steam-pipe  and  arch-pipes  with  the  flue-sheet  in  the 
smoke-box. 

Double  Truck. — A truck  with  two  pair  of  wheels. 

Drag  Iron.  — The  bar  that  connects  the  engine  with 
the  tender  by  means  of  a drag-pin. 

Drag  Pin. — The  pin  by  which  the  drag-iron  is  at- 
tached to  a yoke  under  the  foot-plate. 

Draw  Bar. — A bar  on  front  of  the  pilot  for  the  pur- 
pose of  connecting  the  locomotive  with  cars  or  with 
another  engine. 

Driving  Saddle. — A yoke  or  stand  which  straddles 
the  frame,  and  on  w^hich  the  driving-springs  rest. 

Driving  Wheels. — The  wheels  through  which  the  lo- 
comotive obtains  its  power,  by  their  adhesion  to  the  rails. 

Eccentric.  — Cams  on  the  main  axles  of  the  driving- 
wheels,  through  which  the  slide-valves  receive  their  mo- 
tion. 

Eccentric  Straps.  — The  straps  that  encircle  the  ec- 
centrics, and  to  w^hich  the  eccentric  rods  are  attached. 

Eccentric  Rods.  — Rods  having  one  end  attached  to 
the  eccentric  strap  and  the  other  end  to  the  link. 

Equalizing  Levers.  — Bars  suspended  by  their  centre 


304 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCX)MOTIVE. 


beneath  the  frame,  and  connected  at  each  end  to  the 
springs  of  the  drivers  to  distribute  any  shock  or  jolt  re- 
ceived by  the  wheels. 

Equalizing  Springs.  — Springs  used  on  the  reverse 
shaft  to  equalize  the  weight  of  the  links.  They  are 
either  spiral  or  elliptic,  according  to  circumstances. 

Exhaust  Cavity  in  Valves.  — A cavity  in  the  valve- 
face  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape  from  the  cylinders,  over 
the  bars  or  bridges,  to  the  exhaust-pots. 

Exhaust  Nozzles.  — Nozzles  inserted  in  the  exhaust 
pots,  for  the  purpose  of  decreasing  the  openings  in  order 
to  excite  the  draft  in  the  furnace. 

Exhaust  Ports. — Openings  in  the  middle  of  the  valve- 
seats,  through  which  the  exhaust  steam  escapes  from  the 
cylinders  to  the  exhaust-pots. 

Exhaust  Pots. — Cone-shaped  pipes  attached  to  the  ex- 
haust cavities  of  the  cylinders  in  the  smoke-box. 

Expansion  Clamps. — Clamps  attached  to  the  fire-box 
under  the  main  frame,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
frame  against  the  liners. 

Expansion  Clamps.  — Clamps  bolted  over  the  mam 
frames  and  furnace  pads  to  allow  for  the  expansion  of 
the  boiler. 

Expansion  Joints.  — A joint  on  the  throttle-pipe  to 
allow  for  expansion. 

Feed  Pipes. — Pipes  or  hose  connected  at  one  end  with 
the  tank  and  at  the  other  with  the  receiving  chamber  of 
the  pump,  through  which  the  water  passes  from  the  tank 
to  the  pump. 

Feed  Pipe  Hangers. — Hangers  bolted  to  the  bottom 
of  the  frame,  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  feed- 
pipes. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


305 


Feed  Water  Cocks. — Cocks  in  the  ends  of  the  pipe  to 
regulate  the  supply  of  water  to  the  pumps. 

Feed  Water  Shafts. — Upright  shafts  passing  through 
the  foot-plate  to  the  feed-water  cocks,  and  operated  by 
means  of  cranks. 

Fire  Box. — The  furnace  of  the  locomotive;  the  cham- 
ber in  which  the  fuel  is  consumed. 

Fire  Door.  — A door  on  the  back  end  of  the  boiler 
through  which  the  fuel  is  introduced  into  the  furnace. 

Foaming.  — An  artificial  excitement  or  ebullition  of 
the  water  in  the  boiler  when  the  water  becomes  foul  or 
greasy. 

Follower  Bolts.  — The  bolts  that  secure  the  follower 
plates  to  the  piston-heads. 

Follower  Plates.  — The  plates  that  cover  the  spring- 
packing on  the  front  end  of  the  piston-heads. 

Foot  Board.  — A board  at  the  back  end  of  the  boiler 
on  which  the  engineer  stands. 

Foot  Plate. — A cast-iron  plate  bolted  to  the  back  end 
of  the  frame  in  front  of  the  fire-door,  and  to  which  the 
drag-iron  is  attached  by  means  of  the  drag-pin. 

Frame. — Parallel  pieces  to  which  the  cylinders,  cross- 
ties, and  all  the  main  parts  of  the  locomotive  are  attached. 

Frame  Braces.  — Horizontal  braces  between  the  ped- 
estals. 

Front  Door.  — A door  on  the  front  end  of  the  boiler 
inclosing  the  smoke-box. 

Front  Pail.  — The  front  attachment  of  the  frame  ex- 
tending from  the  front  bumper  back  to  the  front  drivers. 

Frost  Cocks.  — Cocks  to  admit  steam  from  the  boiler 
to  the  feed-pipes,  to  prevent  freezing  in  cold  weather. 

Frost  Plugs. — Plugs  screwed  into  the  pump-chambers 
26*  U 


306 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


and  pump-cages,  to  allow  the  water  to  escape  from  the 
pump-chamber  and  prevent  freezing. 

Fulcrum.  — The  prop,  support,  or  fixed  point  upon 
which  the  levers  of  the  safety-valves  are  sustained,  and 
on  which  they  are  supposed  to  turn  freely. 

Fulcrum  of  Equalizing  Beams.  — Tongues  on  the 
frame  between  the  driving-wheels  on  which  the  equaliz- 
ing beams  vibrate,  by  which  the  weight  of  the  engine  is 
equalized  on  the  drivers. 

Furnace  Pads. — Knees  bolted  on  the  shell  of  the  fire-* 
box,  by  which  the  weight  of  the  boiler  rests  on  the  frame. 

Furnace  Bings.  — The  wrought-iron  ring  that  forms 
the  connection  between  the  outside  and  inside  sheets  in 
the  water  space  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace. 

Fusible  Plug. — A plug  sometimes  used  in  the  crown- 
sheets  of  locomotive  boilers  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
warning  in  case  the  water  in  the  boiler  should  become 
dangerously  low.  The  metal  of  the  fusible  plug  consists 
of  8 parts  of  bismuth,  5 of  lead,  and  3 of  tin ; it  melts 
at  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  or  212°  Fah. 

Gasket.  — A gum  packing  for  the  man-hole  or  hand- 
holes of  boilers. 

Gauge  Cocks.  — Cocks  at  different  levels  on  the  back 
end  of  the  boiler,  to  ascertain  the  height  of  the  water  in 
the  boiler. 

Gib. — The  fixed  wedge  for  taking  up  the  wear  in  boxes 
on  cross-heads  and  crank-pins. 

Gland.  — A bushing  to  secure  the  packing  in  stuffing- 
boxes. 

Glass  Gauge.  — A glass  tube  on  the  back  end  of  the 
boiler,  connected  with  the  steam-  and  water- valves,  to  in- 
dicate the  height  of  the  water. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


307 


Goose  Neck.  — A brass  or  cast-iron  neck  connecting 
the  front  end  of  the  feed-pipe  to  the  lower  chamber  of 
the  pump. 

Grate. — The  parallel  bars  on  which  the  fuel  is  burned 
when  soft  coal  or  wood  is  used. 

Gromnet.  — A ring  of  hemp  used  as  a packing. 

Guide. — A sleeve  on  the  front  end  of  the  steam-chest, 
in  which  the  end  of  the  valve-rods  move. 

Guide. — The  piece  to  which  the  throttle-valve  lever  is 
made  fast,  to  prevent  slipping  when  the  engine  is  in  mo- 
tion. 

Guide  Bars.  — The  parallel  pieces  between  which  the 
cross-hedges  move. 

Guide  Bearer.  — A bar  or  brace  bolted  across  the 
frames,  to  which  the  guide-blocks  are  attached. 

Guide  Blocks.  — The  blocks  on  the  back  head  of  the 
cylinder  and  on  the  guide-bearer,  to  which  the  guide-bars 
are  attached. 

Guide  Brace. — A brace  attached  to  the  guide-bearer 
at  one  end,  and  the  boiler  at  the  other,  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  the  guide-bearer. 

Hand  Holes.  — Holes  in  the  outside  shell  of  the  fur- 
nace near  the  ring,  through  which  to  remove  the  deposits 
of  rust  or  dirt  that  may  accumulate  in  the  water-legs  of 
the  furnace. 

Hand  Bail. — A rail  running  lengthways  of  the  boiler, 
supported  by  studs,  used  as  a safeguard  to  the  engineer 
in  getting  on  or  off  the  foot-board  when  the  engine  is  in 
motion. 

Head  Light.  — A light  used  on  the  front  end  of  loco- 
motives. 

Heater  Cocks.  — Cocks  attached  to  the  boiler  in  the 


308 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


cab  for  the  purpose  of  blowing  steam  through  the  feed- 
pipes to  the  pumps  in  cold  weather. 

Heater  Pipes.  — Pipes  connecting  heater  cocks  with 
feed- water  pipes. 

Hollow  Stays.  — Hollow  stay-bolts  passing  through 
the  outside  and  inside  sheets  of  the  furnace  near  the 
crown-sheets,  to  admit  air  to  the  furnace  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  combustion  of  the  fuel. 

Horns.  — Knees  on  the  top  side  of  the  frame,  back  of 
the  front  bumper. 

House  Boards.  — Boards  on  the  sides  of  the  boiler  at- 
tached to  the  house-brackets,  on  which  the  house  rests. 

House  Brackets.  — Cast-iron  brackets  attached  to  the 
back  bumper  of  the  engine,  and  on  which  the  house- 
boards  rest. 

House  Knees. — Wrought-iron  knees  used  in  attaching 
the  house-boards  to  the  shell  of  the  boiler. 

Induction  Ports.  — The  passages  in  the  valve-seat 
through  which  the  steam  enters  the  cylinders. 

Injector.  — An  instrument  used  in  supplying  boilers 
with  feed  water.  See  Injector. 

Jacket.  — A covering  for  steam  cylinders. 

Jam  Nuts.  — Nuts  used  for  setting  out  the  spring- 
packing in  piston-heads. 

Jam  Wrenches.  — Wrenches  used  for  locking  the 
nuts  of  the  spring-packing  on  piston-heads. 

Jaw. — A stand  secured  to  the  frames  of  railway  cars  to 
hold  the  boxes  in  which  the  journals  of  the  axles  revolve. 

Journals. — That  part  of  the  axles  on  which  the  boxes 
rest. 

Keys.  — The  wedges  for  tightening  the  straps  which 
hold  the  brasses  at  the  ends  of  the  connecting-rods. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


309 


Key  Way.  — A slot  in  a shaft  to  receive  the  key 
where  two  pieces  of  machinery  are  connected  by  means 
of  a key  or  keys. 

King  Pin. — A pin  passing  through  the  centre  casting 
and  the  truck  centre,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
latter  from  becoming  detached  from  the  former. 

Knuckle  Joints,  — Joints  on  the  valve-rods  to  allow 
them  to  vibrate  freely  with  the  radius  of  the  rocker-arm. 

Lagging.  — A wooden  sheathing  placed  round  the 
boiler  and  cylinders  of  locomotives,  for  the  purpose  of 
excluding  the  atmosphere  and  preventing  condensation. 

Lap. — The  distance  which  the  slide-valves  overlap  the 
receiving  ports  when  in  the  middle  of  their  travel. 

Lead. — The  amount  of  opening  the  slide-valves  have 
on  the  steam  end  when  the  pistons  commence  the  stroke 
or  the  cranks  are  on  the  dead  centre. 

Lifting  Links. — The  links  which  connect  the  lifting- 
arms  of  the  reverse  shaft  to  the  saddle-pins  of  the  links, 
by  means  of  which  the  links  are  raised  and  lowered. 

Lifting  Pipe,  Clearance  Pipe,  or  Petticoat  Pipe.  — 
A funnel-shaped  pipe  over  the  exhaust-pots  in  the  smoke- 
box,  that  can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  equalize  the  draft  in 
the  tubes. 

Liners  or  Frame  Liners.  — Pieces  of  iron  placed 
between  the  frames  and  the  ftirnace  to  keep  the  boiler  in 
its  proper  position  between  the  frames. 

Link.  — A variable  radius  expansion  gear  used  on  lo- 
comotives for  the  movement  of  the  steam-valves. 

Link  Block.  — A block  working  between  the  jaws  of 
the  link  and  connected  with  the  upper  arm  of  the 
rocker. 

Lubricator.  — The  valve  or  globe  through  which  the 


310 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


oil  or  tallow  is  admitted  to  the  cylinders,  either  from  the 
steam- chest  or  cab. 

Main  Frames.  — The  frame  that  runs  from  the  front 
end  of  the  drivers  to  the  back  end  of  the  engine. 

Mud  Cock. — A cock  in  the  mud-drum  through  which 
to  discharge  the  mud  from  the  drum. 

Mud  Drums.  — A small  cylinder  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  the  waist  of  the  boiler,  to  receive  the  de- 
posits carried  into  the  boiler  by  the  feed  water. 

Mud  Holes.  — Openings  in  the  back  end  of  the  fire- 
box, generally  closed  by  brass  plugs,  through  which  to  re- 
move the  mud  from  the  lower  water  space. 

Offsets. — Eecesses  in  the  outside  shell  of  the  fire-box 
to  allow  the  spring-saddles  room  between  the  fire-box 
and  frame. 

Packing.  — A substance  used  to  make  a steam-tight 
joint  around  the  piston-  and  valve-rods. 

Packing  Hook.  — A steel  hook  used  for  removing  the 
old  packing  from  the  stuffing-boxes  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  repack  the  engine. 

Packing  Rings. — The  rings  on  the  piston-head  that 
form  the  steam-tight  joint  in  the  cylinder. 

Packing  Stick.  — A small  stick  used  to  drive  the 
packing  into  the  stuffing-boxes. 

Pedestal  Caps.  — Caps  on  the  bottom  of  driving  and 
truck  pedestals. 

Pet  Cock.  — A small  cock  communicating  with  the 
valve  chamber  of  the  pump  to  show  whether  the  pump 
is  working  or  not. 

Pilot.  — A fender  bolted  on  the  front  bumper  to  re- 
move obstructions  from  the  track. 

Pilot  Brace.  — A brace  running  from  the  heel  of  the 
pilot  to  the  front  bumper. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  L0C07T0TIVE. 


311 


Pin  Plate.  — A plate  on  the  link  to  which  the  lifting- 
arm  is  attached. 

Piston  Heads. — Cast-iron  heads  attached  to  the  piston- 
rods,  on  which  the  rings  are  fitted  that  form  the  steam- 
tight  joint  in  the  cylinders. 

Piston  Rod.  — A rod  keyed  at  one  end  to  the  piston- 
head,  and  at  the  other  end  to  the  cross-heads. 

Pockets.  — Recesses  in  the  top  of  the  driving  and 
truck-boxes,  in  which  the  driving-saddles  and  equalizing 
beams  rest. 

Poney  Truck.  — A truck  with  one  pair  of  wheels. 

Priming.  — Water  carried  over  with  the  steam  from 
the  throttle-pipe  to  the  cylinders. 

Pulling  Pin.  — A pin  in  the  foot-plate  to  which  the 
drag-iron  is  attached. 

Pump  Cages.  — Brass  chambers  between  the  pump- 
barrel  and  air-vessel,  in  which  the  valves  are  placed. 

ftuadrant.  — A slotted  segment  in  the  cab,  which  holds 
the  reverse  lever  in  the  right  position  by  means  of  the 
reverse  latch. 

Quadrant.  — A ratchet  segment  in  the  cab  by  which 
the  variable  exhaust  is  regulated. 

Radius  Bar. — An  angle  bar  attached  to  the  back  end 
of  the  truck  frame  and  to  the  radius  bar  cross-tie  by 
means  of  a pin. 

Radius  Bar  Cross -tie. — A bar  slotted  across  the  frame 
as  a brace  for  the  radius  bar. 

Reach  Rod.  — A rod  connecting  the  reverse  lever  with 
the  reverse  arm  of  the  reverse  shaft. 

Receiving  Ports. — The  openings  in  the  valve-seat 
through  which  the  steam  passes  from  the  steam-chests  to 
the  cylinders. 


312 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.- 


Reverse  Latch. — A tongue  fitted  to  notches  in  the 
quadrant,  by  which  the  reversing  lever  is  held  in  position. 

Reverse  Shaft.  — A shaft  running  parallel  with  the 
driving-axles  at  the  top  side  of  the  frame,  by  means  of 
which  the  links  are  raised  or  lowered. 

Reversing  Lever. — A lever  in  reach  of  the  engineer, 
by  which  the  motion  of  the  engine  can  be  changed  and 
the  travel  of  the  valves  increased  or  decreased. 

Rockers.  — Double  cranks,  connected  with  the  link- 
blocks  at  one  end  and  the  valve-rods  at  the  other,  by 
which  the  valves  receive  their  motion  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  eccentrics  and  links. 

Rocker  Boxes. — Boxes  attached  to  the  frames  in 
which  the  rocker-shafts  vibrate. 

Saddle  Pin. — A pin  on  the  back  of  the  saddle-plate, 
to  which  the  lifting  link  is  attached,  and  by  means  of 
which  the  main  link  is  raised  or  lowered. 

Saddle  Plate. — The  plate  that  forms  the  base  of  the 
saddle-pin  on  the  link. 

Safe  Ends.  — Copper  ferrules  brazed  to  the  end  of  the 
iron  tubes  to  form  the  lip  on  the  tube-sheets. 

Safety  Chains. — Chains  attached  to  the  front  bumper 
and  the  front  end  of  the  truck  frame,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  truck  from  swinging  round  and  breaking 
the  links  in  case  the  locomotive  should  run  ofi*  the  track. 

Safety  Hooks.  — Hooks  bolted  to  the  back  bumper  of 
the  engine  ; the  safety  chains  of  the  tender  are  attached. 

Safety  Valves. — Valves  on  the  dome-cover  to  dis- 
charge the  surplus  steam  from  the  boiler. 

Sand  Box. — A cylindrical  box  or  dome  attached  to 
the  top  of  the  boiler,  for  carrying  sand  for  the  engine. 

Sand  Box  Rod. — A rod  communicating  with  the  sand- 
box in  the  cab,  by  which  the  sand-valves  are  moved. 

Sand  Pipes.  — Pipes  communicating  with  the  sand- 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


S13 


box,  through  which  the  sand  passes  to  the  rails  in  front 
of  the  drivers,  to  prevent  the  wheels  from  slipping  when 
the  rails  are  damp  or  greasy. 

Scroll  Irons.  — Iron  bands  placed  round  the  ends  of 
the  front  bumper  under  the  bumper-sheet. 

Shell. — The  outside  sheets  of  the  boiler. 

Slide  Valves. — Slide-valves  are  the  valves  which 
control  the  admission  and  escape  of  steam  to  and  from 
the  cylinders. 

Smoke  Box. — A chamber  at  the  forward  end  of  the 
boiler  which  contains  the  arch-pipes,  lifting-pipes,  ex- 
haust-pots, and*  blower-pipes,  and  through  which  the 
smoke  escapes  from  the  furnace  to  the  smoke-stack. 

Smoke  Box  Bing.  — A wrought-iron  ring  in  the  front 
end  of  the  smoke-box,  to  which  the  frame  of  the  front 
door  is  attached. 

Smoke  Box  Brace — A brace  running  from  the  smoke- 
box  to  the  frame  back  of  the  horn. 

Smoke  Stack. — The  chimney  through  which  the 
smoke  escapes  from  the  smoke-box. 

Smoke  Stack  Base. — A saddle  casting  on  the  smoke- 
arch,  to  which  the  lower  end  of  the  smoke-stack  is  at- 
tached. 

Spark  Arrester.  — A wire  netting  or  screen  in  the 
stack  to  retain  the  sparks. 

Springs.  — Combinations  of  steel-plates  connected  at 
their  centre  by  bands,  and  at  the  ends  to  the  equalizing 
beams,  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  jar  on  the  engine 
produced  by  the  inequality  of  the  track. 

Spring  Balances. — Spring  attachments  in  the  cab 
connected  at  one  end  with  the  safety-valve  levers,  and  at 
the  other  end  with  the  top  sheet  of  the  boiler. 

27 


814 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Spring  Hangers. — The  pieces  that  connect  the  end 
of  the  springs  with  the  equalizing  beams. 

Spring  Saddles  or  Spring  Staples. — Yokes  that 
straddle  the  frames  and  form  a support  for  the  springs  on 
the  top  of  the  driving-boxes. 

Stack  Cone.  — A casting  used  in  the  smoke-stack  for 
the  purpose  of  retarding  the  passage  of  the  sparks  as  they 
escape  from  the  furnace  to  the  open  air. 

Steam  Chests.  — Boxes  on  the  top  of  the  cylinders 
containing  the  slide-valves,  from  which  the  steam  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  cylinders. 

Steam  Gauge. — A gauge  on  the  back  end  of  the 
boiler,  in  the  cab,  to  indicate  the  pressure  df  steam  per 
square  inch  on  the  boiler. 

Steam  Pipes.  — The  pipes  through  which  the  steam 
passes  from  the  dome  to  the  arch-pipes  in  the  smoke- 
box. 

Stop  Cocks.  — Cocks  on  the  water-pipes  between  the 
tender  and  pumps. 

Stop  Valves. — Valves  used  for  different  purposes  in 
connection  with  the  locomotive. 

Straps. — The  pieces  that  secure  the  brasses  on  the 
cross-head  pins  and  wrists  of  the  main  drivers. 

Stroke.  — Half  the  distance  travelled  by  the  pistons 
at  each  revolution  of  the  main  drivers. 

Stub  Ends.  — The  ends  of  the  main  rods  that  butt 
against  the  boxes  on  the  cross-heads  and  wrist-pins. 

Stuffing  Boxes.  — Chambers  in  the  back  head  of  the 
cylinders  and  steam-chests,  through  which  the  piston- 
rods  and  valve-rods  move. 

Supply  Ports. — Openings  in  the  steam-chests  through 
which  the  steam  enters  from  the  arch-pipes. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


315 


Swing  Bolster. — A swinging  bolster  in  the  centre  of 
the  truck,  on  which  the  forward  end  of  the  engine  rests, 
and  which  allows  the  locomotive  to  round  sharp  curves 
with  ease. 

Tender.  — A carrif*^e  attached  to  the  back  end  of  the 
locomotive,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  water  and  fuel. 

Thimble. — An  iron  ring  or  bushing  used  for  stopping 
leaks  in  the  tubes  of  locomotive  boilers. 

Throttle  Lever. — The  lever  by  which  the  throttle - 
valve  is  opened  and  closed. 

Throttle  Pipe.  — A vertical  pipe  having  its  lower  end 
connected  to  the  steam-pipe,  and  its  upper  end  sustained 
by  braces  in  the  dome. 

Throttle  Valve.  — A balance  valve  in  the  throttle- 
pipe,  through  which  the  steam  is  admitted  to  the  steam- 
pipe. 

Tires. — Wrought-iron  or  steel  bands  surrounding  the 
driving-wheels  of  locomotives. 

Trailing  Wheels.  — A pair  of  small  wheels  placed 
behind  the  drivers  in  cases  where  but  one  pair  of  driving- 
wheels  is  used. 

Truck. — The  frame,  wheels,  and  springs  on  which 
the  front  of  the  locomotive  rests. 

Truss  Rods.  — Braces  used  for  strengthening  the 
truck. 

Tubes. — The  iron  or  copper  flues  through  which  the 
smoke  escapes  from  the  furnace  to  the  smoke-box. 

Tube  Sheets.  — The  sheets  in  which  the  tubes  are  in- 
serted. 

Valves.  — See  Slide  and  Stop  Valves. 

Valve  Yokes.  — Wrought-iron  bands  surrounding  the 
valves  in  the  steam-chests,  to  which  the  valve-rods  are  at- 
tached. 


516 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Variables  Exhaust. — An  arrangement  by  which  the 
opening  in  the  exhaust  nozzles  can  be  contracted  for 
the  purpose  of  exciting  the  draft  in  the  furnace. 

Waist.  — The  cylindrical  part  of  a locomotive  boiler. 

Waist  Sheet.  — A sheet  of  wrought-iron  bolted  to 
the  waist  of  the  boiler  by  angle  iron,  to  which  the  guide- 
braces,  guide-bearers,  and  cross-ties  are  attached. 

Water  Tubes.  — Horizontal  tubes  used  as  grate-bars 
in  the  furnaces  of  anthracite  coal  burners. 

Water  Tables.  — A hollow  table  or  apron  riveted  to 
the  front  end  of  the  furnace  and  communicating  with 
the  water  space,  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  current 
of  the  air  and  gases,  and  rendering  the  fuel  more  com- 
bustible. 

Wheel  Covers. — A covering  on  the  drivers  and  truck- 
wheels  to  prevent  the  machinery  from  being  injured  by 
the  mud  and  sand. 

Whistle.  — A bell  or  gong  used  to  give  warning  and 
indicate  the  approach  of  the  locomotive. 

Whistle  Lever. — A lever  attached  to  the  whistle- 
base,  to  open  the  whistle-valvei. 


INDEX 


Absolute  motion,  264. 

Accelerated  motion,  264. 
AcceleratioUf  260. 

Accidents f rules  to  be  followed  in 
case  of,  285. 

Adhesion,  260. 

Air,  33. 

and  fuel,  mixture  of,  65. 
expansion  of,  etc.,  table  show- 
ing, 37. 

pressure  of,  34,  35. 
resistance  to  motion  caused  by, 
38. 

Angle  of  friction,  260. 

Angular  motion,  264. 

Anitnal  strength,  260. 
Anthracite  coal,  66. 

Areas  of  circles,  tables  of,  247,  248, 
267,  271. 

Ash‘pans,  216. 

Atomic  or  molecular  force  of  heat, 
59. 

Attraction,  261. 

Axles,  260. 

driving,  brasses  for,  159. 

Jialanced  slide-valve,  145. 
Baldwin  anthracite  coal-burning 
locomotive,  100. 
Bituminous  coal,  70. 

Boiler  flues,  rule  for  finding  safe 
external  pressure  on,  185. 

27* 


Boiler  pressures,  tables  of,  188, 19L 
Boilers  and  boiler  materials,  defi- 
nitions as  applied  to,  186. 
incrustation  in,  272. 
rule  for  finding  safe  working 
pressure  of,  183. 
locomotive,  163. 

locomotive,  evaporative  power 
of,  170. 

locomotive,  heating  surface  in, 
172. 

locomotive,  heating  surface  to 
grate  surface  in,  174. 
locomotive,  instructions  for  care 
and  management  of,  222. 
locomotive,  machine  and  hand- 
riveting  for,  179. 
locomotive,  proportions  of,  167. 
locomotive,  rule  for  finding 
heating  surface  in,  174. 
locomotive,  rule  for  finding 
heatingsurface  in  tubes  of, 175. 
locomotive,  steam  room  in,  172. 
locomotive,  straight,  162, 176. 
locomotive,  wagon-top,  1G7,  168. 
locomotive,  water  space  in,  172. 
stationary,  175. 

steel,  rule  for  finding  safe  work- 
ing pressure  of,  184. 

Boiling  point  of  water,  29. 

Brasses  for  driving-axles,  159. 

Bridges,  133. 


317 


318 


INDEX. 


bruises,  287. 

Burns,  287. 

Caloric,  51. 

conductors  and  non-conductors 
of,  51. 
latent,  52. 
radiation  of,  51. 
reflection  of,  51. 
sensible,  52. 

Carbon,  77. 

Carhuretted  hydrogen,  77. 
CasUiron,  table  showing  tensile 
strength  of,  257. 

Centre  of  gravity,  262. 
of  oscillation,  264. 
of  percussion,  265. 

Central  or  centrifugal  force,  261. 
Centripetal  force,  261. 

Chemical  combinations  accom- 
panied by  production  of  heat, 
363. 

equivalents,  64. 

Circle,  diameters,  circumferences, 
and  areas  of,  247. 
mensuration  of,  242. 
Circumferences  of  circles,  table 
of,  247,  248. 

Clear ance^pipe,  216. 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  locomotive,  288. 
Coal,  64. 

anthracite,  66. 

anthracite,  composition  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of,  66. 
anthracite,  evaporative  effi- 
ciency of,  68. 

anthracite,  quantity  of  air  re- 
quired for  combustion  of,  67. 
bituminous,  68. 

bituminous,  composition  of,  68. 
Cohesion,  261. 

Cohe,  69. 


Combustion,  63. 

available  heat  of,  65. 
of  fuel  in  locomotive  furnaces, 
210. 

spontaneous,  73. 

Compound  motion,  264. 

( Construction  of  locomotives,  118. 
Crank^pin,  rule  to  find  diameter 
of,  117. 

Crotvn^bars,  203. 

Crushing  strength,  26. 

CugnoVs  locomotive,  158. 
Cylinder,  mensuration  of,  242. 

Dampers,  217. 

Dan  forth  passenger  locomotive,  48 
Decimal  equivalents,  table  of,  245. 
Detrusive  strength,  261. 
Diameter  of  circles,  table  of,  247, 
267. 

Distance  by  railroad  between  im- 
portant places  in  U.  S.,  292. 
Distances  from  Philadelphia  to 
cities  and  towns  in  U.  S.  by 
shortest  routes,  295. 

Driving '■axles,  brasses  for,  159. 
Dynamic  equivalent  of  heat,  58. 

Ebullition  or  boiling  of  water,  27. 
Eccentric^rods,  136. 
length  of,  137. 

positions  of,  on  shaft,  formula  to 
find,  137. 

Eccentrics,  134. 

Elastic  fluids  and  vapors,  49. 
Elasticity,  186. 

Elasticity  of  steam,  82. 

Engine,  power  of  the,  96. 
tank,  128. 

Engines,  stationary,  99. 
Engineers,  locomotive,  21, 
hints  to,  234. 


INDEX, 


319 


Equivalent,  dynamic,  of  heat,  58. 

mechanical,  of  heat,  56. 
Equivalents,  decimal,  table  of,  245. 
Evans%  Oliver,  locomotive,  254. 
Evaporation  of  water,  27. 

why  produces  cold,  52. 
Ekchaust-nozzle,  216. 
ExhausUpovts,  rule  to  find  area 
of,  117. 

Expansion,  power  of,  by  heat,  58. 
Experiments  on  iron  boiler- 
plates (tables),  255,  256. 
Explosions,  boiler,  278. 

Fairlie  narrow-gauge  locomotive, 
136. 

Feed-pump  ram,  rule  to  find  di- 
ameter of,  117. 

Fire,  74. 

Fire^hoxes,  materials  for,  198. 

proportions  of,  198. 

Firemen  on  locomotives,  224. 
on  locomotives,  natural  qualifi- 
cations of,  227. 

Firing,  228. 

Fixed  temperatures,  47. 

Flues,  boiler,  rule  to  find  safe  ex- 
ternal pressure  on,  185. 
Fluids,  conditions  of  equilibrium 
of,  50. 
elastic,  49. 

Force,  261. 

central  or  centrifugal,  261. 
centripetal,  261. 
of  heat,  molecular  or  atomic,  59. 
Forces,  central  and  mechanical, 
260. 

Forney ^s  improved  tank  locomo- 
tive, 125. 

Friction,  261. 
angle  of,  260. 

Fuel  and  air,  mixture  of,  65. 


Fuel,  combustion  of,  in  locomotive 
furnaces,  210. 
ingredients  of,  65. 
unburnt  waste  of,  73. 
Furnaces  in  locomotive  boilers, 
192. 

stayed  sul’falces  in,  strength  ol^ 
I 199. 

' \. 

Gas,  olefiant,  78. 

Oases,  76. 

compression  and  dilatation  ofi 
79. 

gravity  acts  on,  49. 
liquefaction  of,  79. 
specific  gravity  of,  80. 
Giffard^s  injector,  232. 
Gradients,  table  of,  105. 
Grate-bars,  216. 

Gravity,  262. 
centre  of,  262. 
specific,  265. 

specific,  of  different  seas,  26. 
specific,  of  ice,  30. 
specific,  of  water,  26,  31, 
Gyration,  262. 

Heat,  52,  81. 

communication  of,  59. 
dynamic  equivalent  of,  58. 
effects  of,  in  circulation  of  water 
in  boilers,  60. 

effects  of,  upon  different  bodies, 
61. 

latent,  55. 

latent,  of  various  substances,  61. 
mechanical  equivalent  of,  56. 
mechanical  theory  of,  57. 
medium,  61. 

molecular  or  atomic  force  of,  59. 
power  of  expansion  by,  58, 
sensible,  56. 


320 


INDEX, 


Heatf  specific,  53. 
total  or  actual,  59. 
transmission  of,  61 . 
unit  of,  54. 

Morse-power,  actual  or  net,  98. 
indicated,  98. 
nominal,  98. 

of  stationary  engines,  99. 
of  steam-engines,  99. 
Hydroaarbons,  65. 
Mydrodynainics,  262. 
Hydrogen,  77. 

carburetted,  77. 

Hyperbolic  logarithms,  263. 

Ice,  latent  heat  of,  27. 

specific  gravity  of,  30. 
Impetus,  263. 

Inclined  plane,  263. 
Incrustation  of  steam-boilers,272. 
Indicator,  the,  263. 

Indicators,  speed,  161. 

Inertia,  262. 

Injector,  action  of  the,  231. 
accumulation  of  power,  232. 
Kue’s  “ Little  Giant,”  230. 
how  to  put  on,  233. 
method  of  working,  234. 
table  of  capacities,  237. 
Injectors,  table  of  capacities  of,  235 
Instructions  for  care  and  man- 
agement of  locomotive  boil- 
ers, 222. 

**  Ironsides,**  locomotive,  291. 

lap  of  valve,  144. 

and  lead,  table  showing  amount 
of,  146. 

latent  caloric,  52. 

^ heat,  55. 

heat  of  water  or  ice,  27. 
Lateral  motion,  160. 


lateral  pressure  of  water,  251. 
Lead  of  valve,  145. 

Linh,  the,  147. 

adjustment  of  thfe,  152. 
Liquefaction  of  gases,  78. 

Load,  safe,  186. 

Locomotive,  the,  17. 

adhesive  power  of  the,  101. 
age  of,  130. 

average  proportion  of  different 
parts  of,  117. 

Baldwin  anthracite  coal-burn- 
ing, 100. 
building,  117. 

“ Charles  Millard”  exploded,  279 
construction  of,  118. 

Cugnot’s,  158. 
cut  of,  16. 

Danforth  passenger,  48. 
dead  weight  in,  126. 

“ De  Witt  Clinton,”  the,  288. 
eight-wheel  passenger,  62. 
Evans’,  Oliver,  254. 
freight  anthracite  coal -burn- 
ing, 93. 
heavy,  131. 

“ Ironsides,”  291. 

Murdock’s,  212. 
narrow-gauge,  Fairlie,  136. 
number  of,  in  the  United  States, 
130. 

number  of  miles  run  by,  -30. 
power  of,  101. 
proportions  of,  107-115. 
rule  for  calculating  tractive 
power  of,  102. 

rule  for  finding  area  of  exhaust- 
ports  of,  117. 

rule  for  finding  diameter  of 
crank-pin  of,  117. 
rule  for  finding  diameter  of 
feed-pump  ram  of,  117. 


INDEX, 


321 


hoeottioUvef  rule  for  finding  di- 
ameter of  piston-rod  of,  117. 
rule  for  finding  diameter  of 
steam-pipe  of,  117. 
rule  for  finding  horse-power  of, 
102. 

rule  for  finding  power  of,  106. 
rule  for  finding  size  of  steam- 
ports  for,  117. 
setting  the  valves  of,  121. 
Stephenson’s,  George,  277. 
theory  of  the,  24. 
tractive  force  of,  101. 
tractive  power  of,  rules  for  cal- 
culating, 102. 

TjogwrithmSf  263. 
hyperbolic,  263. 

mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  52. 
power,  263. 

properties  of  vapor,  80. 
theory  of  heat,  57. 
Mensuration  of  the  circle,  cyl- 
inder, sphere,  etc.,  242. 
Mercury  f expansion  of,  46. 
properties  of,  43. 

Molecular  or  atomic  force  of  heat, 
59. 

Momentum f 264. 

Motion,  264. 
absolute,  264. 
accelerated,  264. 
angular,  264. 
compound,  264. 
lateral,  160. 
natural,  264. 
perpetual,  265. 
relative,  264. 
retarded,  264. 
uniform,  264. 

Movers,  prime,  265. 

Murdoch's  locomotive,  212. 


Narrow’-gauge  locomotive.  Fair- 
lie,  136. 

Natural  motion,  264. 

Nitrogen,  78. 

Nozzle,  exhaust,  216. 

Number  of  mil^s  of  railroad  in  the 
world  in  lS73,  298. 

Olefiant  gas,  78. 

PacIHng  for  pistons  and  valve- 
rods,  156. 
metallic,  157. 

piston-rod,  rule  to  find  size  of, 
158. 

spring  cylinder,  setting  out, 
155. 

steam  and  spring  cylinder,  154. 
valve-rod,  rule  to  find  size  of^ 
158. 

Pendulum,  265. 

Percussion,  265. 

Perpetual  motion,  265. 

PetticoaUpipe,  216. 

Piston-rod,  rule  to  find  diameter 
of,  117. 

Plane,  inclined,  263. 

Pneumatics,  265. 

Power,  263. 

mechanical,  263. 
of  expansion  by  heat,  58. 
of  locomotive,  rule  for  finding, 
106. 

Pressure  of  air,  34,  35. 
safe  working,  186. 

Prime  movers,  265. 

Radiation  of  caloric,  51. 

Railroad,  number  of  miles  of,  in 
the  world  in  1873,  298. 
trains,  resistance  of  air  against, 
38. 


V 


INDEX, 


m 

Jtailroad  trains,  resistance  of  air 
against,  table  showing,  40. 

Jtailronds,  speed  on,  131. 

Iteflection  of  caloric,  51. 

Relative  motion,  264. 

Resistance  to  motion  caused  by 
the  air,  38. 

Retarded  motion,  264. 

Rocket/^  the  locomotive,  277. 

Rods,  eccentric,  136 ; length  of,  137. 

Rue*s  “Little  Giant”  injector,  230-3. 

Rule  to  find  area  of  exhaust- 
ports,  117. 

to  find  diameter  of  crank-pin, 
117. 

to  find  diameter  of  feed-pump 
ram,  117. 

to  find  diameter  of  piston-rod, 
117. 

to  find  diameter  of  steam-pipe, 
117. 

to  find  elasticity  of  steel  springs, 
252. 

to  find  heating  surface  in  loco- 
motive boilers,  174. 

to  find  heating  surface  in  sta- 
tionary boilers,  175. 

to  find  heating  surface  in  tubes 
of  locomotive  boilers,  175. 

to  find  horse-power  of  locomo- 
tives, 102. 

to  find  power  of  locomotives, 
106. 

to  find  quantity,  height,  etc., 
of  water  in  steam-boilers, 
250. 

to  find  safe  external  pressure  on 
boiler  flues,  185. 

to  find  safe  working  pressure 
of  steel  boilers,  184. 

to  find  size  of  piston-rod  pack- 
ing, 158. 


Rule  to  find  size  of  steam-ports, 
117. 

to  find  size  of  valve-rod  packing, 
158. 

to  find  tractive  power  of  loco- 
motives, 102. 

Rules  to  be  followed  in  case  of  ac- 
cidents, 285. 

Safety -valves f 217. 

table  showing  rise  of,  under 
different  pressures,  220. 
Scalds,  287. 

Seams,  boiler,  punched  and  drilled 
holes  for,  176. 

single  and  double  riveted,  176. 
single  and  double  riveted,  com- 
parative strength  of,  180. 
Sensible  caloric,  52. 

heat,  56. 

Signals,  238. 

Slide-valve,  139. 
balanced,  145. 
friction  on,  143. 

Smoke-box,  213. 

Smoke-stacks,  214. 

Specific  gravity,  265. 
gravity  of  ice,  30. 
gravity  of  gases,  80. 
gravity  of  water,  26, 31. 
heat,  53. 

Speed  indicators,  161. 

Sphere^  mensuration  of,  242. 
Spontaneous  combustion,  73. 
Springs,  steel,  rules  for  finding 
elasticity  of,  252. 

Stay-bolts,  201. 

Stationary  engines,  99. 

Steam,  80. 

elasticity  of,  82. 
mechanical  properties  of,  80. 
pressure  of,  86. 


INDEX, 


323 


Steam  superheated,  88. 
temperature  of,  86. 

Steam-engines f horse  power  of, 94. 
power  of,  96. 

Steam-gauges,  221. 

Steam-pipe,  rule  to  find  diameter 
of,  117. 

Steam-ports,  132. 

rule  to  find  size  of,  117. 

Steel,  195. 

plates,  table  showing  tensile 
strength  of,  259. 

Stephenson^ s.  Geo.,  locomotive, 
277. 

Strength,  266. 
animal,  260. 
crushing,  261. 
detrusive,  261. 
tensile,  186. 
torsional,  266. 
transverse,  266. 
working,  186. 

Table  containing  diameters,  cir- 
cumferences, and  areas  of 
circles,  267,  271. 

deducted  from  experiments  on 
boiler  plates,  255,  256. 
of  areas  of  external  surfaces  and 
diameters  of  tubes,  207-209. 
of  boiler  pressures,  188, 191. 
of  capacities  of  injectors,  235. 
of  decimal  equivalents,  245. 
of  diameters,  circumferences, 
and  areas  of  circles,  247,  248. 
of  gradients,  105. 
of  temperatures  required  for 
the  ignition  of  different  com- 
bustible substances,  75. 
showing  actual  extension  of 
wrought-iron  at  various  tem- 
peratures, 256. 


Table  showing  amount  of  lap  and 
lead  on  valves,  146. 
showing  effects  of  heat  upon 
different  bodies,  61. 
showing  expansion  of  air  by 
heat,  37l  i i 

showing  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute  by  drivers,  129 
showing  resistance  of  air 
against  railroad  trains,  40, 41. 
showing  rise  of  safety-valves 
under  different  pressures,  220. 
showing  specific  gravity  of  dif- 
ferent seas,  26. 

showing  temperature  of  steam, 
etc.,  91,  92. 

showing  tensile  strength  of 
cast-iron,  257. 

showing  tensile  strength  of 
steel  plates,  259. 
showing  time  at  80  different 
places  when  it  is  12  M.  at  N.  Y. 
city,  289. 

showing  tensile  strength  of 
wrought-iron,  258. 
showing  total  heat  of  combus^* 
tion  of  various  fuels,  74. 
showing  velocity  of  escape  and 
pressure  of  sttam,  89. 
showing  weight  of  water,  31, 
249. 

Tank,  engine,  128. 

Temperatures^  fixed,  47. 

Tensile  strength,  186. 

Theory,  mechanical,  of  heat,  67. 

Thermometer,  the,  43. 
absolute  zero,  46. 
centigrade  scale,  45. 
change  of  zero,  46. 
comparative  scale  of  English, 
French,  and  German,  42. 
Fahrenheit’s,  44. 


324 


INDEX, 


Thermometerf  mercurial,  44. 
Reaumer’s,  45. 
solid,  47. 
spirit,  47. 

standard  points  of,  how  ascer- 
tained, 44. 

Tools,  wrecking,  239. 

Torsion,  266. 

Torsional  strength,  266. 

Tractive  power  of  locomotives,  102. 
TrammeUgauge,  122. 
Transverse  strength,  266. 

Tubes,  203. 

breaking  of,  205. 
burning  of,  204. 
corrosion  of,  205. 
leakage  of,  205. 
length  and  diameter  of,  205. 
resistance  of,  204. 
sagging  of,  205. 
steel,*203,  205. 

table  of  areas  of  external  sur- 
faces and  diameters  of,  207-209 
wearing  of,  204. 

Uniform  motion,  264. 

Unit  of  heat,  5^. 

Valve,  lap  and  lead  of,  144. 

position  of,  at  full  stroke,  139. 
position  of,  at  half  stroke,  140. 
position  of,  when  link  is  in  mid- 
gear, 141. 
travel  of,  145. 
rods,  length  of,  144. 
rods,  packing  for,  156. 
slide,  139. 

slide,  balanced,  145. 
slide,  friction  on,  143. 


Valves  of  locomotives,  setting  the, 

121. 

safety,  217. 

safety,  table  showing  rise 
under  different  pressures,  220, 
Vapors,  elastic,  49. 

Velocity,  266. 

Vocabulary,  299. 

Water,  25. 

boiling  point  of,  29. 
composition  of,  26. 
discharge  of,  251. 
ebullition  or  boiling  of,  27. 
evaporation  of,  27. 
for  the  production  of  steam,  26 
latent  heat  of,  27. 
lateral  pressure  of,  251. 
passing  into  steam,  86. 
pressure  of,  251. 
rules  to  find  quantity,  height, 
etc.,  in  steam  boilers,  250. 
specific  gravity  of,  26,  31. 
weight  of  (tables),  31,  32,  249. 
Weights  and  measures,  266. 

measures,  etc.,  useful  numbers 
in  calculating,  240,  241. 
Worh,  266. 

WorUing-pressure,  safe,  186. 

strength,  definition  of,  186. 
Wreching -tools,  239. 
Wrought-iron,  table  showing 
actual  extension  of,  256. 
table  showing  tensile  sttbiigtli 
of,  258. 

Zero,  absolute,  46. 
change  of,  46. 


THE  END. 


